THE  COMMERCIAL 
APPLE  INDUSTRY 
OF  NORJH  AMERICA 


The  Rural  Science  Series 

L.fiBailey  Ediior 

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neural  Science  Series 

L.  H.  BAILEY,  EDITOK 


THE 

COMMERCIAL  APPLE  INDUSTRY 
OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


i&nral  &ranr? 

EDITED   BT  L.   H.  BAILEY 

THE   SOIL.     King. 

THE  SPRAYING  OF  PLANTS.     Lodeman. 

MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS.     Wing.     Enlarged  and  Revised. 

THE  FERTILITY  OF  THE  LAND.     Roberts. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  FRUIT-GROWING.  Bailey.  20th  Edi- 
tion, Revised. 

BUSH-FRUITS.     Card.     Revised. 

FERTILIZERS.     Voorhees.     Revised. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE.     Bailey.     Revised. 

IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE.     King. 

THE  FARMSTEAD.     Roberts. 

RURAL  WEALTH  AND  WELFARE.     Fairchild. 

THE    PRINCIPLES   OF   VEGETABLE-GARDENING.     Bailey. 

FARM   POULTRY.     Watson.     Enlarged  and  Revised. 

THE  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS.  Jordan.  (Now  Rural  Text- 
Book.)  Series  Revised. 

THE  FARMER'S  BUSINESS  HANDBOOK.     Roberts. 

THE  DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS.     Mayo. 

THE   HORSE.     Roberts. 

How  TO  CHOOSE  A  FARM.     Hunt. 

FORAGE   CROPS.     Voorhees. 

BACTERIA  IN  RELATION  TO  COUNTRY  LIFE.     Lipman. 

THE  NURSERY-BOOK.     Bailey.      (Now  Rural  Manual  Series.) 

PLANT-BREEDING.     Bailey    and    Gilbert.     Revised. 

THE  FORCING-BOOK.     Bailey. 

THE  PRUNING-BOOK.     Bailey.     (Now  Rural  Manual  Series.) 

FRUIT  GROWING  IN  ARID  REGIONS.     Paddock  and  Whipple. 

RURAL  HYGIENE.     Ogden. 

DRY-FARMING.     Widtsoe. 

LAW  FOR  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER.     Green. 

FARM  BOYS  AND  GIRLS.     McKeever. 

THE  TRAINING  AND  BREAKING  \OF  HORSES.     Harper. 

SHEEP-FARMING  IN  NORTH   AMERICA.     Craig. 

COOPERATION  IN  AGRICULTURE.     Powell. 

THE   FARM  WOODLOT.     Cheyney  and   Wending. 

HOUSEHOLD   INSECTS.     Herrick. 

CITRUS  FRUITS.     Coit. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  RURAL  CREDITS.     Mormon. 

BEEKEEPING.     Phillips. 

SUBTROPICAL  VEGETABLE-GARDENING.     Rolfs. 

TURF  FOR  GOLF  COURSES.     Piper  and  Oakley. 

THE  POTATO.     Gilbert. 

STRAWBERRY-GROWING.     Fletcher. 

WESTERN    LIVE-STOCK   MANAGEMENT.     Potter. 

PEACH  GROWING.     Goi/M. 

THE   SUGAR-BEET  IN  AMERICA.     Harris. 

PORK-PRODUCTION.     Smith. 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  INSTITUTIONS  UNDER  IRRIGATION. 
Thomas. 

LANDSCAPE-GARDENING.     Simonds. 

COMMERCIAL  APPLE  INDUSTRY  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.  Folger 
and  Thomson. 

THE  SWEET  POTATO.     Hand  and  Cockerham. 


THE 

COMMERCIAL  APPLE  INDUSTRY 
OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


BY 

J.  C.  FOLGER 

Assistant  Secretary 

International  Apple  Shippers'  Association 
AND 

S.  M.  THOMSON 

Formerly  Fruit  Crop  Specialist,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture 


Jfteto 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
1921 

A.U  rights  reserved 


68324 


OOPTBIGHT,    1921, 

BT  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.    Published  February,  igai. 


SB 


FT 


TO 
EDWARD  H.  THOMSON 

WHOSE  VISION,  ENCOURAGEMENT  AND  WISE  COUNSEL 

HAVE  BEEN  OF  THE  GREATEST  AID  IN  THE 

PREPARATION  OF  THIS  WORK 

THE  AUTHORS 
INSCRIBE  THE  BOOK 


PREFACE 

In  collecting  material  for  this  work,  the  authors  have 
visited  practically  every  important  apple-growing  county 
in  the  United  States;  first  in  connection  with  a  special 
investigation  of  the  cost  of  producing  apples  in  important 
regions,  conducted  by  the  Office  of  Farm  Management, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture ;  and  later  as 
Fruit  Crop  Specialists  engaged  in  organizing  a  system 
for  estimating  important  fruit  crops  and  particularly 
the  commercial  apple  crop  of  the  United  States.  The  au- 
thors were  impressed  with  a  need  of  this  kind  of  book,  as  the 
many  published  works  on  the  apple  have  not  dealt  system- 
atically with  the  commercial  phase  of  apple-growing  which 
only  recently  has  become  a  well  defined  industry  entirely 
separate  from  the  home  orchard.  The  whole  subject  of 
propagation  has  been  omitted,  as  this  is  now  well  treated 
in  separate  books.  The  apple  is  approached  in  this  book 
from  the  point  of  view  of  commerce. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  work,  credit  is  due  to  Roy  E. 
Marshall  and  Fred  R.  Motz  of  the  Virginia  Station  for 
aid  in  the  chapter  on  pruning ;  to  Prof.  W.  H.  Chandler 
of  Ithaca,  New  York,  for  his  advice  and  suggestions;  to 
E.  H.  Siegler  and  W.  V.  Cruess,  and  to  many  others 
both  in  the  Federal  Department  of  Agriculture  and  the  va- 
rious state  schools  of  agriculture  and  experiment  stations. 


Preface 

For  the  Canadian  material,  the  authors  are  indebted  to  Mr. 
C.  W.  Baxter,  and  for  the  Australian  and  New  Zealand 
material,  to  Mr.  S.  P.  Vaughn  of  Tasmania,  P.  Val  Kerr 
of  Victoria,  and  K.  A.  Clayton  of  New  Zealand. 

THE  AUTHOES. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 

PAGES 

IMPORTANCE  AND  HISTORY  OF  THE  APPLE  INDUSTRY  .     .  1-27 

Decline  of  farm  orchards 3-6 

Centralized  plantings  in  favored  regions      .      .     .  6-7 

Outlook  for  the  apple  industry 7-12 

Favorable  factors 9-15 

Increase  in  population 10 

Movement  to  the  city      .      .     .     .    .  .      .  10-11 

Development  of  foreign  market      ...  11 

Education  and  advertising 12 

Transportation 12 

Distribution 12-13 

Improved  cultural  methods 13-14 

Increase  in  the  use  of  by-products  ...  14 

Future  production 14-15 

Unfavorable  factors 15-19 

Increased  commercial  crop 16-17 

Poor  outlook  for  unfavored  region  ...  17 

Danger  from  boom  development     .     .     .  17-18 

Competition  with  citrus  fruit   ....  18-19 

Conclusions 19-20 

History  of  commercial  apple-growing  in  the  United 

States 20-26 

Scientific  classification 26-27 

CHAPTEB  H 

LEADING  APPLE  REGIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  .     .     .  28-84 

Western  New  York 29-32 

Hudson  Valley  /.     . 32-33 

ix 


Contents 

PAGES 

New  England  Baldwin  belt 33-34 

The  Champlain  district 35-36 

New  Jersey 36-37 

Delaware 37-38 

Shenandoah-Cumberland  district 38-40 

Piedmont  district  of  Virginia 40-42 

Minor  regions  in  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia  and 

Virginia 42-43 

Mountain  region  of  North  Carolina 43—45 

Mountain  region  of  Georgia 45—46 

Ohio 46-48 

Southern  Ohio  Rome  Beauty  district  .     .     .  46-47 

Minor  regions  in  Ohio 47-48 

Kentucky 48 

Michigan 49-50 

Illinois 50-54 

Southern  Illinois  early  apple  region     .     .     .  51-52 

Mississippi  Valley  region  of  Illinois      ...  52 

Southeastern  Illinois 53-54 

Ozark  region 54-56 

Missouri  River  region 56-59 

Arkansas  Valley  of  Kansas 59 

Colorado 60-62 

New  Mexico 62-63 

Utah 63 

Montana 64 

Washington 64-70 

Yakima  Valley 65-67 

Wenatchee  North  Central  Washington  district  67-69 

Spokane  district 70 

Walla  Walla  district 70 

Oregon 70-73 

Hood  River  Valley 70-72 

Rogue  River  Valley 72-73 

Other  apple  districts  in  Oregon 73 

Idaho 74-75 

Payette  district 74-75 

Boise  Valley 75 


Contents  ii 

PAGES 

Twin  Falls 75 

Lewiston  section 75 

California 76-79 

Watsonville  district 76-77 

Sebastopol  apple  district 78 

Yucaipa  section 78-79 

Wisconsin 79-80 

Minnesota 80 

Early  apple  regions 80-84 

New  York  and  New  England 81 

New  Jersey        81-82 

Delaware 82 

Southern  and  Middle  Atlantic  states  ...  83 

East  North  Central  states 83 

Southern  Illinois 83 

California 83-84 

CHAPTEK  m 

COMMERCIAL  APPLE  PRODUCTION  IN  CANADA,  AUSTRALIA 

AND  NEW  ZEALAND 85-99 

Canada 85-95 

Nova  Scotia 86-88 

Prince  Edward  Island  and  New  Brunswick    .  88-89 

Quebec 89 

Ontario 90-92 

British  Columbia 92-95 

Australia  and  New  Zealand 95-99 

CHAPTEK  IV 

LOCALITY  AND  SITE  FOR  THE  COMMERCIAL  ORCHARD  .     .  100-132 

Choosing  the  locality 100-132 

Western  New  York 100-101 

Hudson  Valley 101-102 

Champlain  district 102-103 

New  England 103 

New  Jersey-Delaware  Peninsula      ....          104 


Contents 

PAGES 

Shenandoah-Cumberland  region       ....  104-105 

Piedmont  region  of  Virginia 105-106 

Southern  Ohio  Home  Beauty  section  .     .     .  106 

Western  Michigan 106-107 

Illinois 107 

Ozark  region 107-108 

Missouri  River  region 108-109 

Western  Slope  of  Colorado 109 

Utah 109-110 

Idaho 110-111 

Washington 111-112 

Montana 112 

Oregon 112-113 

California 113-115 

New  Mexico 115 

Choosing  the  site  for  a  fruit-farm 116-132 

Kaw  versus  planted  land v   .  116 

Time  to  buy 117 

Syndicate  projects 117-118 

Yields  and  varieties 118 

Proximity  to  market 118-119 

Distance  from  shipping  station 119-120 

Bearing  age  of  trees 120-122 

Diseases  and  insect  pests 122-123 

Climatic  influences 123-125 

Size  of  farm 125-126 

Necessary  capital 126-128 

Labor  conditions 128-129 

Social  conditions 129 

Regional  developments 130 

Soil 130-132 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  FARM -MANAGEMENT  PHASES  OF  APPLE-GROWING    .  133-143 

Farm  organization  in  relation  to  the  orchard  .      .  133-140 

Systems  of  tenantry 140-143 


Contents  xiii 
CHAPTER  VI 

PAGES 

ESTABLISHING  THE  APPLE  ORCHARD 144-154 

Nursery  stock 145-147 

Systems  of  planting 147-150 

Square  system 148-149 

Hexagonal  system 149-150 

Quincunx  system    .           150 

Planting  distances 150-151 

Time  to  plant 151 

Setting  trees 151-152 

Heading  trees 152-153 

Use  of  fillers  and  inter-crops 153-154 


CHAPTER  VII 

CULTIVATION  OP  THE  ORCHARD 155-171 

Clean  cultivation .-!•"••  156-157 

Sod-  or  grass-mulch 157-158 

Clean  cultivation  with  cover-crops 159-160 

Cover-crops 160-162 

Value  of  cultivation  and  methods 162-165 

Implements 165 

The  tractor  in  the  apple  orchard 165-171 

Truck 171 


CHAPTER  VIE! 

IRRIGATION 172-185 

Choosing  an  irrigated  district 177-180 

Irrigating  the  orchard 181-183 

Quantity  of  water  to  supply 181-182 

Time  to  irrigate  orchards 182 

Number  of  applications 182-183 

Methods  of  irrigation 183-185 


xiv  Contents 

CHAPTER  IX 

PAGES 

FERTILIZING  THE  COMMERCIAL  APPLE  ORCHARD     .     .     .  186-205 

Present  practices  in  fertilizing 187-188 

Value  of  stable  manure 188-189 

Experiments  with  fertilizers  .......  189-198 

Research  work  of  Kraus  and  Kraybill  .      .      .  189-191 
Experiments  in  Pennsylvania      .      .     .     .     .  191-195 

Nitrate  experiments  by  Lewis 195-198 

Amount  of  fertilizer  to  a  tree 198-199 

Needs  of  irrigated  regions 199-200 

Nitrate  of  soda 200 

Methods  of  applying  fertilizers 200-202 

Pruning  with  reference  to  fertilizing     ....  202 

Fertilizer  tests 202-203 

General  summary  and  specific  recommendations  .  204-205 

CHAPTER  X 

DISEASES  AND- PESTS  OF  THE  APPLE  AND  THEIR  CONTROL  206-248 

Important  insect  enemies  of  the  apple  ....  206-216 

The  codlin-moth 206-210 

San  Jose  scale 210-211 

Oyster-shell  scale 211 

Apple  aphids 211-213 

Plum  curculio 213 

Apple  red  bugs 214 

Apple-tree  tent-caterpillar 214 

Round-headed  apple-tree  borer 214-215 

Cutworms 215 

Bud-moth 215 

The  fruit-tree  leaf-roller 215-216 

Important  apple  diseases 216-223 

Apple-scab 216-217 

Apple-blotch       .     .     v 217 

Sooty-blotch  and  fly-speck 217 

Cedar-rust 218 

Bitter-rot                              218-219 


Contents  xv 

PAGES 

Blister-canker 219-220 

Collar-rot 220-221 

Fire-blight 221-222 

Apple  rosette 222-223 

Baldwin-spot 223 

Animal  pests  of  the  apple 223-226 

Meadow  mice 223-224 

.  Pine  mice 224-225 

Control  of  mice  by  poisoning 225-226 

Spraying 226-235 

Cost  of  spraying 228-230 

Spray  equipment 230-232 

Hired  sprayers 232-233 

Regional  spraying  notes 233-235 

Dusting 235-238 

Insecticides 238-247 

For  biting  insects 239-241 

For  sucking  insects,  contact  sprays  ....  241-246 

Spreaders  for  the  different  insecticides  .  .  .  246-247 

Fungicides 247-248 

CHAPTER  XI 

FRUIT  SETTING  AND  POLLINATION 249-257 

Causes  for  the  failure  to  set  fruit 250-255 

Essentials  for  a  good  pollinizer 255-257 

CHAPTER  XII 

PRUNING  AND  THINNING 258-283 

Types  of  training  apple  trees 259-268 

Natural  form 260 

Central  leader  system 261 

Open  center,  or  vase-shape 262-264 

The  double-headed  type 264-265 

The  modified  leader  tree 266-268 

General  treatment  of  young  trees 268-270 

After  first  season    .                                 ...  268-269 


xvi  Contents 

PAGES 

After  second  season 269 

After  third  season 269-270 

Vegetative,  transitory  and  fruitage  stages  .      .      .  270-276 

Transition  period 270-271 

The  fruiting  period 271 

Fruit-buds 271-272 

Changing  system  of  pruning 272-274 

Bearing  trees 274-275 

Distribution    and    establishment    of    fruiting 

wood     .     .     . 275-276 

Time  of  pruning ,    .  276-277 

Pruning  tools 277-278 

Wound  dressings 278 

Thinning 278-283 

Time  and  method  of  thinning 281-282 

Cost  of  thinning 283 

CHAPTER  XIII 

RENOVATION  OF  OLD  ORCHARDS 284-290 

General  treatment 285-286 

Pruning 286-238 

Spraying 288 

Soil  management 289-290 

CHAPTER  XIV 

HANDLING  THE  CROP 291-312 

Picking 291-296 

Contract  picking  versus  day  labor    ....  294 

Picking  utensils 294-296 

Packing 296-312 

Sorting  and  packing  barreled  apples    .     .      .  296-302 

Orchard  packing 297-298 

Packing-houses  for  barreled  apples      .      .  298-302 

Handling  the  western  box  apple  crop  .      .     .  302-307 

Orchard  carriers 303 

Sorting  and  packing  the  boxed  apples      .  303-305 


Contents  xvii 

PAGES 

Packing-house  arrangement  and  operation  305-307 

Mechanical  sizers 307-308 

Community  packing-houses 308-312 

Methods   of   operating   community   pack- 
ing-houses       309-310 

Packing-house  construction       ....  310-312 
Bulk  shipments 312 

CHAPTER  XV 

MARKETING  AND  STORAGE 313-338 

Selling  on  consignment 313-314 

Selling  to  cash  buyers 314-316 

The  lump-sum  cash  buyer 315 

Tree-run  cash  buyer 315-316 

Cooperative  methods  of  selling 316-322 

Form  of  organization  for  cooperative  associa- 
tions       319-321 

Pooling 321-322 

Purchase  of  supplies 322 

Distribution 322-325 

Commission-man 323 

The  broker 323-324 

Carlot  operator 324-325 

Carlot  distributor 325 

Field  of  distribution 325-329 

Foreign  markets 325-327 

Improved     distribution    within     the     United 

States 327-329 

Physical  handling 329 

Grades  and  standards    329-333 

Standard  package 330-332 

Inspection  at  point  of  origin 332-333 

Storage      333-336 

Local  vs.  distance  storage 334-335 

Common  storage 335-336 

Handling  and  cultural  methods  as  relating  to 

storage 336 


xviii  Contents 

PAGES 

Government  agencies  in  marketing 336-338 

Crop  estimates 337 

Market  and  storage  reports 337-338 

Cooperative  vs.  individual  effort 338 


CHAPTEK  XVI 
YIELDS    339-347 

CHAPTER  XVII 

BY-PRODUCTS  OF  THE  APPLE  INDUSTRY 348-356 

Evaporators 350-355 

Natural  draft  evaporators 350-352 

Forced  draft  evaporators 352-354 

Distillation  types  of  evaporators      ....  354-355 

Canning,  jelly  manufacturing 355-356 

Cider  and  vinegar 356 

CHAPTEK  XVIH 

COST  OF  PRODUCTION 357-386 

Importance  of  yields 361-364 

Influence  of  size  of  orchard 364-366 

Effect  of  size  and  type  of  farm 366-369 

Effect  of  climate  and  soil  on  cost  of  production    .  369-370 

Influence  of  varieties 370-371 

Accessibility  to  market 372 

Cost  of  materials 372 

Labor  and  cost  production 373-374 

Orchard  maintenance 374-379 

Cost  of  pruning  and  brush  disposal     .     .     .  375-376 

Soil  management 376-378 

Thinning 378-379 

Harvesting  costs 379-383 

Conclusions     .  ....  383-386 


Contents  xix 

CHAPTER  XIX 

PAGES 

VARIETIES  OF  APPLES 387-457 

Summer  varieties 394-395 

Late  varieties 395-426 

Baldwin 396 

Ben  Davis 397 

Winesap 398 

Rhode  Island  Greening 398-399 

Jonathan 399-400 

York  Imperial 400 

Rome 401 

Northern  Spy     .      . 401-402 

Yellow  Newtown  (Albemarle  Pippin)  .     .     .  402-403 

Esopus  Spitzenburg 403-404 

Grimes  Golden 404-405 

Stayman 405-406 

Delicious 406-407 

Gano  and  Black  Ben 407 

Yellow  Bellflower 407-408 

Russets 408-410 

Tompkins  King 410-411 

Arkansas  (Mammoth  Black  Twig)  ....  411 

Wagener 411-412 

Arkansas  Black 412-413 

Willow  Twig 413 

White  Pearmain  (White  Winter  Pearmain)   .  414 

Red  Limbertwig 414 

Yates 415 

Stark .  415-416 

Hubbardston       . 416-417 

Tolman  Sweet 417 

Winter  Banana 418 

Missouri  Pippin 418-419 

Northwestern  Greening 419 

Rambo 419-420 

Ortley 420-421 

Red  Canada  421 


xx  Contents 

PAGES 

Monmouth 421^122 

Collins 422 

Pumpkin  Sweet  (Pound  Sweet) 422-423 

Wolf  Eiver 423-424 

Sutton 424 

Ingram 424-425 

Black  Gilliflower 425 

Lady 426 

Early  and  fall  varieties 426-441 

Oldenburg  (Duchess) 426-427 

Wealthy 427-428 

Yellow  Transparent 428 

Twenty  Ounce 429 

Gravenstein        429-430 

Mclntosh 430-431 

Maiden  Blush  (Lady  Blush,  Red  Cheek)  .      .  431-432 

Fameuse  (Snow) 432-433 

Williams     (Williams    Early    Red,    Williams 

Favorite) 433 

Benoni 433-434 

Bonum  (Magnum  Bonum) 434-435 

Red  Astrachan 435 

Early  Ripe 435-436 

Alexander 436 

Starr 436-437 

Red  June  (Carolina  Red  June,  Carolina  June, 

Carolina  Red) 437-438 

Chenango  (Chenango  Strawberry)  ....  438 

Fall  Pippin 439 

Status  of  commercial  varieties 441—449 

Age  varieties  begin  to  bear 449-451 

Relative  productivity  of  varieties  in  full  bearing  .  451-452 
Relative  hardiness  of  commercial  varieties  .      .      .  452-453 

Varieties  in  greatest  demand 453-454 

Export  varieties ' 454 

Varieties  for  the  home  orchards 454-457 

INDEX  459 


LIST  OF  PLATES 


PLATE  I. —  Typical  western  New  York  scene.     Full  bearing 

trees  forty  to  fifty  years  of  age Frontispiece 

TACING 
PAGE 

PLATE  II. —  Low-headed  trees-  in  a  Virginia  orchard      .      .     20 

PLATE  III. —  A  typical  commercial  apple  orchard  in  the 
Missouri  Valley,  Kansas.  A  fifteen-year-old  Newtown 
orchard  near  Medford,  Oregon,  in  need  of  water.  Bed 
Astrachan  orchard  in  Delaware 38 

PLATE  IV. —  Looking  across  the  floor  of  the  Wenatchee  Val- 
ley at  Cashmere,  Washington 58 

PLATE  V. —  View  of  the  Hood  Kiver  Valley  fruit  section  .     70 

PLATE  VI. —  King   apples   growing    in    Annapolis    Valley, 

Nova  Scotia 88 

PLATE  VII. —  A  young  irrigated  orchard  in  the  Bitter  Root 
Valley  of  Montana,  showing  the  clean  cultivation 
formerly  practiced  in  the  Northwest 108 

PLATE  VIII. — Eight-foot  disk  in  operation  in  the  Eogue 
River  Valley,  Oregon.  Spring-tooth  harrow  in  use  in 
a  northwest  orchard 130 

PLATE  IX. —  Weeder  in  use  in  a  Hood  River  orchard.     Type 

of  float  commonly  used  at  Hood  River  after  cultivation  152 

PLATE  X. —  Irrigating  five-year-old  Winesap  trees  in  the 

Yakima  Valley l  174 

PLATE  XL—  Insect  pests  of  the  apple 190 

PLATE  XII. —  San  Jose  scale 208 

PLATE  XIII. —  Insect  enemies  of  the  apple 220 

xxi 


xxii  List  of  Plates 

FACING 
PAGE 

PLATE  XIV.— The  woolly  aphis 234 

PLATE  XV.—  The  tent  caterpillar.    Rosy  apple  aphis    .     .  246 
PLATE  XVI.— Diseases  of  the  apple 260 

PLATE  XVIL—  This  tree  has  produced  as  high  as  20  bar- 
rels of  fine  fruit  in  one  season  and  averages  about  10 
barrels  a  year 274 

PLATE  XVLLI. —  Showing  method  of  picking  practiced  in 

Virginia 292 

PLATE  XIX. —  Packing  the  fruit 306 

PLATE  XX. —  Sizing  and  grading  machines 326 

PLATE  XXI—  A  Baldwin  tree  near  Paonia,  Colorado     .     .  346 

PLATE  XXII. —  A  typical  yellow  Newtown  orchard  in  the 

Watsonville,   California,  district 368 

PLATE  XXIII. —  Seven-year-old  Spitzenburg  orchard  in  the 
Northwest 390 

PLATE  XXIV.— A  Nebraska  orchard  of  Missouri  Pippin 
trees 418 


THE  COMMERCIAL  APPLE  INDUSTRY 
OF   NORTH   AMERICA 

CHAPTER  I 

IMPORTANCE  AND  HISTORY  OF  TEE  APPLE 
INDUSTRY 

THE  object  of  this  work  is  to  deal  particularly  with 
the  commercial  phases  of  the  apple-growing  industry  with 
reference  to:  (1)  Distribution  of  important  commercial 
plantings  under  which  heading  will  be  discussed  the  ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages  of  various  regions;  (2)  eco- 
nomic problems  such  as  cost  of  production  and  marketing ; 
(3)  scientific  cultural  methods. 

In  presenting  the  subject,  attention  is  first  given  to 
the  geography  of  commercial  apple-growing  in  the  United 
States  and  competing  foreign  countries.  It  is  important 
to  know  not  only  where  commercial  apples  are  grown  but 
also  the  cultural  methods  employed  in  different  regions. 
The  wide  distribution  of  apple  plantings  in  the  United 
States  and  the  extreme  variation  in  the  character  of  the 
orchards  makes  it  difficult  for  one  to  determine  the  rela- 
tive importance  of  any  region,  much  less  to  have  a  definite 
conception  of  the  conditions  which  prevail  in  remote  dis- 
tricts. 

Few  agricultural  enterprises  have  experienced  the 
vicissitudes  which  seem  inherent  in  the  fruit-growing  in- 


2  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

dustry.  No  small  factor  in  bringing  about  the  changing 
fortunes  of  the  apple-growers  has  been  a  lack  of  definite 
information  regarding  the  status  of  the  industry  in  com- 
peting regions  Temporary  high  prices  determined  in  a 
large  measure  the  rate  of  planting  in  most  sections. 
Census  figures  giving  agricultural,  but  not  commercial, 
production  of  apples,  have  been  used  in  forecasting  cycles 
of  either  over-  or  under-planting.  In  census  figures 
no  line  was  drawn  between  commercial  and  agricultural 
production.  Many  times  when  the  agricultural  produc- 
tion was  decreasing,  the  commercial  production,  or  that 
portion  of  the  crop  which  reaches  the  market  and  affects 
prices,  was  actually  increasing,  in  some  instances  very 
materially.  A  sharp  line  must,  therefore,  be  drawn  be- 
tween commercial  and  non-commercial  production  if  we 
are  to  make  a  correct  analysis  of  the  industry  and  view 
the  future  in  the  proper  light. 

It  has  been  only  within  comparatively  recent  years  that 
commercial  apple-growing  in  the  United  States  has  ex- 
perienced such  a  very  noticeable  change  from  what  might 
be  termed  a  local,  home  orchard  or  semi-commercial  enter- 
prise into  a  highly  specialized  and  scientific  industry  of 
national  proportions,  centralized  in  certain  favored  local- 
ities, involving  intensive  and  technical  methods  of  culture, 
and  necessitating  very  complex  and  intricate  methods  of 
distribution  and  marketing.  In  other  words,  the  apple 
crop  has  been  taken  from  the  list  of  general  farm  products 
and  has  been  placed  among  the  foremost  specialized  crops. 

In  1919  the  apple  crop  of  the  United  States  was  valued 
at  $275,463,000.  It  ordinarily  ranks  about  ninth  in  the 
list  of  farm  crops,  being  exceeded  in  total  value  only  by 
wheat,  oats,  cotton,  corn,  potatoes,  barley,  hay  and  tobacco. 


Importance  and  History  of  the  Apple  Industry         3 

Some  idea  of  the  relative  importance  of  the  apple  crop 
may  be  obtained  by  a  study  of  the  following  table : 

TABLE  I. —  ESTIMATED  VALUE  OF  IMPORTANT  CROPS  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES,  BASED  ON  FIVE- YEAR  AVERAGE  1914r-1918 

Corn     $2,634,804,000 

Wheat    1,198,737,000 

Hay    1,132,276,000 

Cotton    1,097,039,000 

Oats   773,752,000 

Potatoes    372,239,000 

Tobacco   208,426,000 

Apples   184,774,000 

DECLINE    OF   FABM   ORCHARDS 

At  present  commercial  apples  can  be  grown  successfully 
only  when  scientific  and  intensive  cultural  methods  are 
employed.  The  farmer  can  no  longer  give  his  orchard  in- 
different care  and  expect  to  compete  with  the  commercial 
grower.  With  the  advent  of  new  districts,  competition 
has  necessitated  the  adoption  of  improved  methods  mark- 
ing the  decline  of  the  farm  orchard  and  the  corresponding 
rise  in  importance  of  specialized  commercial  plantings. 

About  1850,  apple-growing  began  to  assume  important 
commercial  proportions,  but  for  many  years  the  farm 
orchards  remained  an  important  factor.  The  demand  for 
apples  in  the  towns  and  cities  was  at  first  supplied  from 
the  farm  orchards  in  adjacent  territory.  No  great  effort 
was  made  to  locate  distant  markets  and  in  years  of  heavy 
production  most  of  the  crops  would  remain  on  the  farm. 
About  1860  certain  highly  productive  sections  of  western 
New  York  demonstrated  their  superiority  in  producing 
high  quality  fruit  and  this  fruit  outsold  that  from  other 
districts.  These  inherent  advantages  overcame  the  dis- 


4  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

tance  from  market  so  that  the  center  of  commercial  apple 
production  was  established  and  has  remained  in  western 
New  York.  (See  Plate  1.) 

Despite  the  rapid  centralization  of  commercial  plantings 
in  more  favored  regions,  the  apple  is  adapted  to  a  wide 
variation  of  soil  and  climatic  conditions,  and  is  widely  cul- 
tivated throughout  the  United  States.  A  great  many 
farms  produce  a  few  more  apples  than  are  needed  at  home. 
Many  of  these  go  to  waste,  but  sometimes  the  surplus  is 
pressed  into  cider,  used  for  other  by-products,  or  in  some 
quantity  finds  its  way  into  commercial  channels  during  the 
years  when  prices  warrant.  Just  how  great  a  part  the 
last  factor  plays  in  the  commercial  apple  industry  is  diffi- 
cult to  determine,  but  obviously  in  the  aggregate  it  is  of 
no  little  importance.  Particularly  is  this  true  throughout 
such  states  as  Iowa,  Illinois,  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania  where 
apples  from  farm  orchards  are  hauled  to  nearby  towns  and 
supply  the  market  which  might  otherwise  exist  for  the 
so-called  "  strictly  "  commercial  crop.  The  line  of  dis- 
tinction between  commercial  and  non-commercial  produc- 
tion is  being  more  and  more  closely  drawn,  however,  so 
that  the  strictly  commercial  crop  stands  out  in  sharp  con- 
trast. 

Practically  speaking,  the  spraying  operation  gives  rise 
to  one  of  the  first  sharp  distinctions  between  commercial 
and  non-commercial  orchards.  Insect  pests  and  diseases 
have  exacted  a  heavy  toll  from  unsprayed  orchards  and 
to-day  thousands  of  acres  of  farm  orchards,  especially  east 
of  the  Mississippi  River  and  in  such  states  as  Pennsyl- 
vania, Ohio  and  Kentucky  are  slowly  dying  out.  When 
it  is  known  that  more  than  90  per  cent  of  the  orchards  in 
some  states  have  never  been  sprayed,  the  wide  disparage- 

\ 


Importance  and  History  of  the  Apple  Industry 


TABLE  II. —  AVERAGE  COMMERCIAL  AND  AVERAGE  TOTAL  PRODUC- 
TION OF  APPLES  IN  UNITED  STATES  FOR  FOUR  YEARS. 
(1916-1919) 


State 

Commercia, 
Crop 
Bbls. 

Total  Crop 
Bbls. 

Percentage  of 
total  crop 
which  is 
commercial 

1.  Washington    .... 
2.  New   York     .... 
3.  Virginia     
4.  California      .... 
5.  Michigan        .     ... 
6.  Illinois      

5,062,000 
4,132,000 
1,785,000 
1,246,000 
1,133,000 
1,045,000 

(2)i   6,431,000 
(    1)      9,106,000 
(  4)      3,758,000 
(   6)      2,435,000 
(   5)      2,531,000 
(10)      1,731,000 

78 
45 
45 
51 
44 
60 

7.  Pennsylvania      .     .     . 
8.  Missouri    
9.  West  Virginia    .     .     . 
10    Oregon        .          ... 

988,000 
916,000 
892,000 
886  000 

(   3)      4,526,000 
(   8)      2,008,000 
(   9)      1,784,000 
(11)      1430000 

22 
46 
50 
62 

11.  Colorado    
12.  Ohio      
13    Idaho         

683,000 
629,000 
589  000 

(21)         851,000 
(   7)     2,014,000 
(20)         844000 

80 
31 
70 

14.  Kansas      
15.  New  Jersey  .... 
16.  Arkansas        .... 
17.  Maine    
18.  Massachusetts    .     .     . 
19.  Indiana      
20    Maryland        .... 
21.  Vermont    

500,000 
493,000 
476,000 
441,000 
307,000 
304,000 
279,000 
207  000 

(25)         705,000 
(23)         757,000 
(22)         809,000 
(12)      1,334,000 
(17)         940,000 
(16)         974,000 
(24)        757,000 
(26)         588000 

71 
65 
59 
33 
33 
31 
35 
35 

22.  North  Carolina       .     . 
23.  Iowa     

186,000 
182,000 

(13)      1,232,000 
(18)         897,000 

15 
22 

24.  Delaware   
25.  Nebraska        .... 
26.  Tennessee       .... 
27.  New  Hampshire     .     . 
28.  New  Mexico       .     .     . 
20.  Utah      

169,000 
164,000 
161,000 
157,000 
156,000 
123,000 

(36)         224,000 
(32)         398,000 
(15)      1,173,000 
(29)         441,000 
(35)         298,000 
(37)         214,000 

75 
44 
14 
36 
52 
58 

30.  Connecticut    .... 
31.  Wisconsin       .... 
32.  Kentucky        .... 
33.  Georgia      
34.  Montana    

117,000 
117,000 
115,000 
101,000 
86000 

(28)         446,000 
(19)         883,000 
(14)      1,208,000 
(27)         474,000 
(34)         394  000 

23 
13 

10 
21 
27 

35.  Minnesota      .... 
36.  Oklahoma       .     .  i  .    . 
37.  Texas    
38.  Rhode  Island     .     .     . 
39.  Alabama    
40.  Arizona      
41.  South  Dakota    .     .     . 

51,000 
35,000 
24,000 
22,000 
20.000 
16,000 
4,000 

(30)         423,000 
(33)         344,000 
(38)         144,000 
(40)           78,000 
(31)         404,000 
(41)           46,000 
(30)         105,000 

12 
10 
17 
28 
5 
35 
4 

U.  S. 

25.001.000 

56.502.000 

44 

i  Figures   in  parentheses  rank  states   in   order  of  importance  in  total  pro- 
duction. 


6  The  Commercial  'Apple  Industry 

ment  between  the  agricultural  and  the  commercial  crop  is 
not  surprising. 

Table  II  shows  the  average  agricultural  and  commer- 
cial apple  production  in  the  different  states  for  the  period 
1916-1919  inclusive.  It  will  be  seen  that  of  an  average 
total  production  of  approximately  56,000,000  barrels,  only 
25,000,000  are  commercial.  In  other  words,  about  44 
per  cent  of  the  total  production  during  this  period  reached 
commercial  channels. 

Apples  used  for  by-products  are  not  included  in  the  com- 
mercial crop.  Allowing  for  this  factor,  it  would  still  ap- 
pear that  from  40  to  45  per  cent  of  our  total  apple  crop 
is  either  consumed  in  the  county  where  grown  or  goes  to 
waste. 

CENTRALIZED    PLANTINGS    IN    FAVORED    REGIONS 

The  centralization  of  commercial  plantings  in  favored 
regions  has  been  an  interesting  process.  The  most  notable 
feature  in  the  development  of  the  apple  industry  has  been 
the  rapidly  increasing  commercial  crop  from  western 
states,  particularly  Washington,  Oregon,  Idaho,  Cali- 
fornia and  Colorado.  Twenty  years  ago  commercial  pro- 
duction in  these  states,  with  the  exception  of  California, 
was  practically  negligible.  To-day  over  40  per  cent  of 
the  commercial  apple  crop  of  the  United  States  is  grown 
in  the  Far  West  and  at  no  distant  date  western  production 
may  represent  one-half  of  this  total.  Although  far  from 
the  centers  of  population  and  markets,  millions  of  dollars 
have  been  expended  in  the  development  of  apple  orchards 
in  the  irrigated  valleys  of  far  western  states.  Heavy 
yields  and  fine  market  quality  have  combined  to  over- 
come the  disadvantages  of  long  shipments  to  market. 


Importance  and  History  of  the  Apple  Industry         7 

Along  with  the  development  of  the  commercial  apple 
industry  there  has  been  built  up,  and  particularly  in 
recent  years,  extensive  machinery  for  the  handling,  dis- 
tributing and  marketing  of  apples.  Sectional  lines  have 
been  broken  down  and  this  product  has  become  distinctly 
a  national  and  even  international  commodity  of  exchange. 
Thousands  of  cars  of  this  fruit  move  across  the  entire 
continent  and  large  cargoes  are  exported  to  Europe,  Aus- 
tralia and  South  America,  ^ew  and  interesting  relations 
between  the  producer  and  consumer  have  been  established 
in  an  intricate  system  of  marketing.  Competition  in  the 
production  of  high  quality  fruit  has  worked  great  changes 
in  cultural  methods.  Scientific  investigation  has  thrown 
light  on  many  phases  of  the  industry,  all  of  which  will 
require  separate  treatment. 

OUTLOOK   FOB    THE    APPLE    INDUSTRY 

Apple  production  does  not  respond  quickly  to  supply 
and  demand,  and  for  this  reason  there  tends  to  be  less 
stability  in  the  matter  of  prices  than  with  other  products. 
It  requires  several  years  for  trees  to  come  into  full  bearing, 
and  over-production  as  the  result  of  excessive  planting  is 
not  felt  for  a  considerable  period.  If  the  production  of 
potatoes,  wheat  or  oats  exceeds  the  demand,  the  land  can 
be  put  in  other  crops.  But  when  it  has  required  ten  or 
fifteen  years,  and  much  expense,  to  bring  an  apple  or- 
chard to  bearing,  the  owner  is  loath  to  pull  out  his  trees 
and  will  usually  wait  several  years  in  the  hope  that  price 
and  production  will  become  adjusted. 

The  history  of  apple  production  in  the  United  States 
has  run  in  cycles.  In  the  middle  of  the  past  century, 
when  apples  first  began  to  be  grown  commercially,  prices 


8  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

were  good.  During  the  decade  1865  to  1875,  prices  con- 
tinued high,  and  during  the  period  1850  to  1875  over  half 
of  the  present  bearing  orchards  in  western  New  York 
were  set.  Over-production  began  to  be  felt  in  about  1880. 
From  this  time  on  commercial  production  increased  and 
prices  fell  until  1896,  when  the  76,000,000  barrel  crop 
(agricultural)  was  grown  and  the  industry  reached  low 
price  ebb. 

From  1890  to  1896  many  growers  pulled  out  their  trees, 
confident  that  the  good  prices  would  never  return.  Very 
little  planting  was  undertaken  in  this  period.  In  about 
fifteen  years  prices  began  to  climb  back  until  the  crest  of 
another  wave  was  reached  between  1907  and  1911.  As 
prices  improved,  beginning  in  1900  and  continuing  up 
until  1908-9,  there  occurred  another  heavy  planting  pe- 
riod which  assumed  the  proportions  of  a  boom  in  many 
western  states.  It  was  during  this  period  that  most  of 
the  acreage  in  such  box-apple  sections  as  Yakima,  Wen- 
atchee,  Hood  River,  southern  Idaho  and  Colorado,  which 
in  1919  produced  nearly  half  of  the  commercial  apples 
in  the  United  States,  was  set.  Five  consecutive  failures 
in  the  Ozark,  Missouri,  crop,  from  frost-injury,  contributed 
to  this  inflation  by  creating  a  strong  demand  for  northwest 
fruit  in  a  territory  ordinarily  supplied. 

The  productiveness  of  such  valleys  as  the  Yakima  and 
Wenatchee  in  Washington  was  phenomenal.  Trees  were 
young  and  free  from  disease,  the  yields  on  bearing 
trees  were  unusual  and  the  returns  to  the  acre  were  far 
greater  than  had  been  thought  possible  from  any  com- 
mercial orchard.  Gross  sales  sometimes  exceeded  $2,000 
an  acre  and  in  some  instances  orchards  sold  for  as  high  as 


Importance  and  History  of  the  Apple  Industry        9 

$3,500  an  acre.  The  price  for  raw  land  reached  $500 
to  $1,000  an  acre.  A  reaction  in  prices  followed  this 
period  of  heavy  planting  and  the  country  is  just  now 
recovering  from  the  effects  of  the  boom. 

While  once  suffering  from  inflation,  such  districts  as 
Yakima,  Hood  River,  Wenatchee  and  other  well  known 
valleys  have  been  and  will  remain  as  centers  of  production. 
Unfortunately,  however,  a  large  acreage  of  land  unsuited 
to  commercial  production  was  set  to  trees  and  exploited 
as  apple  land,  with  disastrous  results  to  investors. 
Projects  including  thousands  of  acres  of  land  were  laid 
out  and  planted  to  trees  in  some  states  only  to  fall  into 
entire  neglect.  Thus  far  there  has  never  been  any  con- 
certed movement  toward  actually  pulling  out  trees.  How- 
ever, to  the  same  effect,  many  trees  receive  little  or  in- 
different care  and  never  attain  full  commercial  bearing. 
This  is  the  principle  which  tends  to  limit  production. 
Growers  slip  behind,  omit  cultivation  and  spraying  and 
other  necessary  cultural  operations,  with  the  result  that 
their  orchards  will  not  produce  commercial  fruit.  It  is 
for  this  reason  that  census  figures,  giving  mere  number  of 
trees,  are  very  often  misleading  and  need  careful  analysis 
without  which  the  industry  may  be  led  into  periods  of 
over-  and  under-planting. 

Favorable  factors. 

It  is  often  asked  by  those  who  contemplate  setting  an 
apple  orchard  whether  it  will  be  a  good  business  proposi- 
tion or  whether  there  will  be  over-production  in  the  years 
to  come.  A  definite  reply  is  impossible.  However,  a 
careful  study  of  these  points,  in  the  light  of  present  facts 


10  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

and  conditions,  leads  to  certain  probabilities.  The  fol- 
lowing factors  are  favorable  to  the  future  of  the  apple 
industry. 

1.  Increase  in  population. 

The  first  point  to  be  considered  is  the  probable  increase 
or  decrease  in  consumption.  There  may  be  periods  of 
very  heavy  planting,  but  if  population  and  demand  in- 
crease proportionately,  an  equilibrium  is  maintained. 
Obviously  the  most  favorable  factor  in  the  outlook  is  the 
rapid  normal  increase  in  the  population  of  the  United 
States.  If  the  same  rate  of  increase  continues,  in  1930 
there  will  be  130,000,000  people,  while  in  1940,  when 
many  of  the  apple  orchards  not  yet  in  bearing  will  reach 
their  highest  productivity,  there  will  be  165,000,000  peo- 
ple. If  the  same  rate  of  increase  continues  until  1950, 
there  will  be  210,000,000.  Kate  of  increase  in  population 
depends,  of  course,  on  a  number  of  factors. 

2.  Movement  to  the  city. 

The  important  factor  in  the  increase  in  population  is 
that  there  is  a  constantly  increasing  percentage  living  in 
cities  and  towns.  For  example,  in  1790  96  per  cent  of 
the  inhabitants  lived  on  farms  and  only  4  per  cent  lived 
in  towns  and  did  not  raise  the  food  they  consumed;  in 
1860  84  per  cent  lived  on  farms  and  16  per  cent  in 
towns;  in  1880  44  per  cent  on  farms  and  56  per  cent  in 
towns;  in  1900  35  per  cent  on  farms  and  65  per  cent  in 
towns  and  in  1910  30'  per  cent  on  farms  and  70  per  cent 
in  towns.  The  drift  towards  the  city  is  distinctly  in  the 
orchardist's  favor.  In  fact,  this  would  seem  to  be  the 


Importance  and  History  of  the  Apple  Industry      11 

most  favorable  of  all  factors  in  the  outlook  of  the  apple 
industry  and  a  potent  influence  against  over-production. 

3.  Development  of  foreign  market. 

In  past  years  varying  quantities,  seldom  exceeding  two 
million  barrels  of  the  best  apples,  were  exported  annually. 
There  are  great  possibilities  in  the  export  trade,  not  only 
in  those  countries  which  at  the  present  time  consume  large 
quantities  of  American  apples,  but  also  in  undeveloped 
foreign  markets.  South  America  is  as  yet  a  market 
largely  undeveloped. 

At  present,  the  United  States  produces  the  larger  part 
of  the  world's  commercial  apple  crop.  Most  of  this  is 
consumed  at  home.  In  addition,  foreign  fruit  is  im- 
ported to  the  value  of  hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars 
from  countries  which  do  not  consume  apples  except  in  a 
very  limited  quantity.  The  apple  is  one  of  the  least 
perishable  and  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  most  popular 
fruits,  once  a  demand  is  stimulated.  At  present  Eng- 
land is  the  leading  export  market.  Other  north  European 
countries  consume  American  apples  in  lesser  quantities. 
When  it  is  considered  that  in  the  face  of  an  abundance  of 
other  fresh  fruits  and  food  stuffs  the  people  of  the  United 
States  consume  over  20,000,000  barrels  of  commercial 
apples  and  export  only  about  2,000,000  barrels  annually, 
the  possibilities  of  export  can  be  more  fully  appreciated, 
particularly  as  the  European  countries  with  their  millions 
of  population  produce  commercial  apples  only  in  limited 
quantities.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  by  the 
time  a  package  of  high-grade  apples  reaches  the  European 
market,  the  price  is  out  of  the  reach  of  such  classes  as  in 
this  country  consume  much  of  our  own  commercial  crop. 


12  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

4.  Education  and  advertising. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  consumption  of  high-grade  fruit 
has  been  greatly  stimulated  in  recent  years  by  judicious 
advertising.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  northwest 
apples.  Advertising  and  educational  campaigns  will  con- 
tinue to  increase  consumption.  The  improved  quality  of 
commercial  apples  is  unquestionably  stimulating  the  de- 
mand for  this  fruit  among  all  classes.  The  fruit-stand 
has  played  no  small  part  in  creating  this  demand  by  dis- 
playing and  familiarizing  the  people  of  the  cities  with 
the  superb  quality  of  certain  high-grade  brands  and  va- 
rieties of  apples.  A  large  portion  of  the  northwest  boxed 
apple  crop  is  retailed  an  apple  at  a  time.  As  the  con- 
suming public  becomes  more  and  more  familiar  with 
high  quality  apples,  the  demand  for  this  fruit  becomes 
more  and  more  pronounced. 

5.  Transportation. 

The  success  of  commercial  apple-growing  in  various 
regions  is  greatly  affected  by  transportation  and  railroad 
facilities.  Some  of  the  more  southern  districts,  for  ex- 
ample, have  poor  transportation  facilities  and  orchards 
are  very  often  located  in  hilly  sections  where  hauling  the 
fruit  to  the  shipping  point  represents  one  of  the  principal 
costs  of  production.  With  improved  roads  and  shipping 
facilities,  distance  from  market  and  inaccessibility  will 
be  largely  overcome. 

6.  Distribution. 

With  the  improved  storage  facilities  and  the  progress 
already  made  in  distribution,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the 
domestic  markets  have  been  able  to  absorb  the  increasing 


Importance  and  History  of  the  Apple  Industry      13 

commercial  apple  crop.  Should  the  apple-grower  be  able 
to  duplicate  even  in  part  the  distributing  methods  used 
in  the  citrus  industry,  it  becomes  apparent  that  he  might 
share  in  the  increased  demand  for  high-grade  fruit.  The 
sale  of  oranges  has  increased  in  recent  years  more  rap- 
idly than  population.  Many  potential  consuming  centers 
are  represented  in  towns  which  can  no  longer  depend  on 
good  apples  from  nearby  farms,  but  are  as  yet  scarcely 
touched  by  the  present  system  of  distribution.  These 
will  eventually  be  supplied  and  will  absorb  a  large  amount 
of  high-grade  fruit,  even  though  at  the  present  time  a 
demand  for  such  a  product  seems  relatively  slight. 

Storage  facilities  now  established  in  all  large  consuming 
centers  have  played  a  most  important  part  in  developing 
city  trade.  The  extension  of  storage  facilities  and  better 
methods  of  distribution  represent  one  of  the  favorable 
factors  in  the  outlook  for  the  commercial  apple  industry. 

7.  Improved  cultural  methods. 

There  has  been  a  great  improvement  in  eVery  phase  of 
orchard  management.  Improved  methods  of  spraying, 
pruning,  cultivating,  and  the  like  have  made  possible  the 
production  of  high-grade  fruit.  Orchard  management 
has  probably  reached  its  highest  development  in  the 
Northwest.  Careful  orchard  management  is  expensive, 
but  there  is  compensation  in  increased  yield,  which  is  the 
big  factor  in  reducing  cost  production  a  unit.  The  com- 
mercial grower  has  been  able  to  produce  high-grade  fruit 
economically,  sell  it  at  good  prices  and  outstrip  his  more 
careless  neighbor  or  the  producer  of  inferior  apples.  In 
other  words,  keen  competition  is  forcing  the  home  or- 
chard and  semi-commercial  fruit  off  the  market. 


14  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

8.  Increase  in  the  use  of  by-products. 

One  of  the  most  favorable  factors  in  the  outlook  of 
apple  production  is  the  increasing  importance  and  use  of 
apple  by-products.  It  is  only  in  recent  years  that  the 
canned  apple  industry  assumed  great  importance.  Dried 
apples  are  more  in  demand  than  before.  With  the  advent 
of  prohibition,  the  demand  for  apple  juice  products  is 
increasing  greatly.  Jellies,  apple-butter  and  similar  prod- 
ucts are  being  manufactured  in  increasing  quantities. 
The  apples  required  in  the  manufacture  of  these  by- 
products will  remove  from  the  market  much  of  the  low- 
grade  fruit.  Enormous  by-product  plants  have  been  built 
in  the  heart  of  the  Shenandoah-Cumberland  region  of  the 
Middle  Atlantic  states,  in  western  New  York,  in  the  Ya- 
kima  and  Wenatchee  valleys  of  Washington  and  in  fact  in 
all  important  apple  regions.  Numerous  breweries  and  dis- 
tilleries have  been  converted  into  plants  for  the  production 
of  apple  by-products. 

9.  Future  production. 

It  is  important  to  note,  in  connection  with  possible 
future  production,  that  there  has  been  little  concerted  ap- 
ple planting  in  any  part  of  the  United  States  since  1910. 
This  lack  of  planting  can  not  fail  to  have  effect  on  the 
production  of  the  next  two  decades.  In  speculating  on 
future  production,  one  instinctively  turns  to  New  York 
State,  which  until  very  recently  was  credited  with  one- 
fourth  of  the  normal  commercial  apple  production  of  the 
United  States.  In  the  Hudson  Valley  are  many  new  or- 
chards which  will  increase  materially  the  production  from 
this  region.  However,  in  western  New  York,  which  is 


Importance  and  History  of  the  Apple  Industry       15 

responsible  for  the  bulk  of  New  York  apple  production, 
the  average  bearing  orchard  is  over  forty  years  of  age. 
Although  they  have  had  a  remarkable  record  for  longevity, 
production  can  not  be  maintained  indefinitely  on  these 
old  orchards  which  were  for  the  most  part  planted  in  the 
sixties  and  seventies  of  the  preceding  century.  Therefore, 
unless  planting  proceeds  much  more  rapidly  than  in  the 
past,  no  increase  and  in  fact  a  possible  decrease  in  pro- 
duction can  be  expected  from  western  New  York. 

New  England  apple  orchards  have  been  going  back 
rapidly  the  past  several  years.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  no- 
where in  the  eastern  states  with  the  exception  of  the  Shen- 
andoah-Cumberland  region,  in  New  Jersey  and  Delaware, 
does  there  seem  likely  to  be  any  material  increase  in 
production.  It  is  a  notable  fact  that  a  great  decrease  has 
occurred  in  the  number  of  apple  trees  all  through  the 
Middle  West  and  although  a  revival  of  interest  is  serving 
to  hold  production  at  its  present  point,  it  does  not  seem 
that  on  the  whole  this  section  of  the  United  States  will 
show  an  increased  apple  production  in  the  near  future. 

The  Pacific  Northwest  will  unquestionably  show  an 
increased  production  during  the  next  several  years  and 
will  be  an  increasingly  important  factor  in  the  commercial 
apple  situation.  While  the  Northwest  will  continue  to 
ship  more  and  more  cars  of  apples,  there  will  be  no  such 
relative  increase  in  production  as  that  which  occurred  in 
the  past  ten  years. 

Unfavorable  factors. 

To  mistake  hopes  for  facts  in  the  determination  to 
see  only  the  favorable  side,  regardless  of  true  conditions, 
has  been  too  frequent.  Production  in  the  western 


16  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

states  has  not  yet  reached  its  maximum.  Twenty-six 
per  cent  of  the  new  planting  in  the  decade  1900  to  1910 
was  in  the  Pacific  Northwest.  This  region  will  have  a 
normal  increase  in  production  of  high  quality  fruit.  It  is, 
to  a  great  extent,  commercial,  and  most  of  it  will  reach 
eastern  markets.  This  will  unquestionably  be  the  biggest 
factor  in  the  apple  problem.  Even  to-day  the  average  ap- 
ple-grower does  not  seem  to  appreciate  the  importance  of 
the  western  crop  which  has  grown  so  rapidly  that  it  has 
been  difficult  to  keep  fully  informed  as  to  the  normal  size. 

1.  Increased  commercial  crop. 

It  is  very  evident  that  there  has  been  an  increase  in  the 
strictly  commercial  apple  crop  of  the  United  States,  census 
figures  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding.  It  is  important 
to  be  on  guard  against  statistics  and  figures  showing  de- 
creases in  acreage.  The  fraction  of  the  crop  which  reaches 
commercial  channels  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  Ordi- 
narily the  commercial  crop  is  estimated  at  approximately 
40  per  cent  of  the  total  production.  Commercial  apples 
are  defined  to  include  only  that  portion  of  the  crop  which 
reaches  strictly  commercial  channels.  All  fruit  left  or 
eaten  on  the  farm,  wasted  or  used  for  by-products,  was  not 
considered  as  commercial.  The  agricultural  crop  may  de- 
crease, but  if  there  is  a  greater  portion  of  it  directed  into 
commercial  channels,  the  decrease  may  be  more  than  offset 
by  the  increasing  commercial  crop.  In  many  sections  the 
commercial  crop  is  and  has  been  increasing  rapidly  during 
the  past  few  years. 

Even  with  the  expected  increase  in  population  and  the 
better  distribution  discussed  as  favorable  factors,  years 
are  likely  to  occur  when  bumper  crops  will  cause  prices  to 


Importance  and  History  of  the  Apple  Industry       17 

fall  as  low  as  the  cost  of  production.  However,  unless 
there  is  a  decided  tendency  towards  new  planting,  it  seems 
improbable  that  these  years  will  be  successive  or  very  fre- 
quent. There  should  always  be  a  margin  of  safety  and 
these  lean  years  should  be  considered  by  prospective  apple- 
growers. 

2.  Poor  outlook  for  unfavored  region. 

One  of  the  principal  factors  in  lowering  cost  of  produc- 
tion is  increased  yields.  In  other  words,  high  yielding  sec- 
tions have  a  distinct  advantage  and  sometimes  increased 
cost  of  production  actually  reacts  in  their  favor  by  elim- 
inating less  favored  regions,  and  thereby  limiting  competi- 
tion. The  great  increase  in  the  cost  of  labor  and  material 
has  made  it  necessary  to  receive  a  price  for  fruit  consider- 
ably in  advance  of  that  required  formerly  to  pay  the  costs 
and  leave  a  profit.  Many  sections  can  overcome  these  in- 
creased costs  by  increasing  yields  and  better  management. 
Less  favored  districts  in  so-called  marginal  regions  will  be 
the  first  to  suffer.  The  grower  who  has  good  yields  and 
manages  well  will  ordinarily  be  successful. 

3.  Danger  from  boom  development. 

During  a  period  of  high  prices  for  fruit,  there  will  al- 
ways be  danger  of  land-selling  booms.  Promoters  will  buy 
up  large  tracts  of  land,  set  them  to  trees  and  then  en- 
deavor to  unload  on  unsuspecting  city  men  and  fanners 
not  familiar  with  fruit-growing.  Needless  to  say,  the 
growth  of  the  industry  by  such  methods  is  unhealthy  and 
honest  and  intelligent  growers  and  horticulturists  should 
combat  such  efforts  with  merciless  publicity.  This  is  not 


18  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

intended  to  discourage  legitimate  investments.  Well  se- 
lected farms  have  been  known  to  pay  for  themselves  in  a 
year.  Syndicate  farming  schemes,  however,  are  always 
questionable.  They  sound  well,  but  they  seldom  work  out. 
Attempts  of  this  kind  were  numerous  a  few  years  ago,  were 
largely  discontinued  for  a  time,  but  may  revive  following 
high  price  years.  After  a  few  years  of  inactivity,  "  pro- 
moters "  will  appear  to  prey  on  a  new  class  of  investors. 
Careful  investigation  on  the  part  of  investors  should  enable 
them  to  determine  which  orchards  were  set  to  produce  fruit 
and  which  were  set  for  speculation.  By  curbing  this  spec- 
ulative influence,  a  long  step  will  be  taken  towards  pre- 
venting over-planting. 

Among  the  favorable  factors  mentioned  in  the  forego- 
ing paragraphs  are  the  extension  of  foreign  markets  and 
the  increase  in  exportations  to  meet  this  demand.  In  pass- 
ing, one  should  not  fail  to  note  that  in  a  certain  part  of  the 
world  there  are  being  developed  important  apple-produc- 
ing regions.  Notable  among  these  is  Tasmania,  which  has 
produced  as  many  as  2,000,000  cases  of  commercial  ap- 
ples and  exported  as  many  as  800,000  cases  (bushels)  to 
England  in  one  year.  Canada  will  be  an  increasingly  im- 
portant factor  in  the  apple  industry.  Many  localities  are 
suitable  for  apple-growing  in  this  country  and  new  regions 
are  constantly  being  developed. 

4.  Competition  with  citrus  fruit. 

In  discussing  the  outlook  for  the  apple  industry,  some 
consideration  must  be  given  to  its  relative  status  in  com- 
parison with  the  rapidly  growing  citrus  fruit  industry. 
In  1896,  when  one  of  the  largest  apple  crops  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  industry  was  harvested,  citrus  fruit-growing  in 


Importance  and  History  of  the  Apple  Industry       19 

the  United  States  was  comparatively  in  its  infancy.  Since 
1896,  citrus  production  has  doubled  and  trebled  in  size 
until  during  the  year  1917  approximately  100,000  carloads 
of  citrus  fruits  were  produced  and  sold  in  the  United 
States.  Of  these,  54,000  carloads  were  grown  in  Cali- 
fornia alone ;  the  remainder  largely  in  Florida.  It  is  dif- 
ficult definitely  to  establish  the  significance  of  this  growth 
in  relation  to  the  apple  industry.  In  the  first  place,  cit- 
rus fruits  can  be  grown  only  within  comparatively  small 
areas  and  their  production  is  thereby  limited.  Citrus- 
growers  have  perfected  a  better  system  of  distribution  and 
have  placed  their  products  in  a  greater  number  of  markets. 
This  competition  may  check  apple  consumption,  but  on  tho 
whole,  it  seems  to  indicate  that  the  possibilities  of  apple 
distribution  have  not  been  as  well  recognized  as  they  might 
have  been.  Citrus  production  has  increased  much  more 
rapidly  than  population  and  yet  distributing  agencies  have 
sought  out  markets,  stimulated  demand  and  have  disposed 
of  their  vastly  increased  product  in  most  instances  at  a 
profit. 

Conclusions. 

On  the  whole,  although  our  commercial  apple  produc- 
tion may  increase  perceptibly  in  the  next  few  years,  due 
principally  to  increased  production  from  such  regions  as 
the  Pacific  Northwest  and  the  Shenandoah-Cumberland, 
there  will  be  no  such  relative  increases  as  in  the  period 
from  1905  to  1920. 

The  population  is  increasing,  with  a  resulting  demand 
for  more  fruit.  The  extension  of  foreign  markets,  better 
means  of  distribution  and  wider  uses  of  the  apple,  com- 
bine in  giving  a  promising  outlook  for  the  apple  industry. 


20  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

There  seems  no  reason  to  believe  that  over  a  period  of 
years,  taking  the  good  with  the  bad,  apples  will  make  any 
materially  better  returns  than  many  other  farm  crops ; 
yet  apple-growing  is  a  specialized  industry  and  will  always 
afford  exceptional  opportunity  for  individual  effort. 

HISTOEY   OF    COMMERCIAL   APPLE-GKOWING   IN   THE 

UNITED  STATES 

The  cultivated  apple  comes  to  us  from  prehistoric  time. 
While  several  species  of  native  crab-apples  were  growing 
wild  in  the  forests  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  this 
country,  these  species  have  never  attained  commercial  im- 
portance. Practically  all  the  commercial  varieties  are 
from  the  Pyrus  Mains  stock,  which  is  a  native  of  southwest 
Asia  and  adjacent  Europe  and  which  has  been  cultivated 
since  time  immemorial.  Crab-apples  came  chiefly  from 
Pyrus  lodccdta,  or  Siberian  crab,  which  comes  from  the 
more  northern  and  eastern  parts  of  Asia. 

At  present  the  apple  is  the  most  widely  cultivated  and 
important  fruit  in  existence,  being  grown  in  practically 
every  country  and  in  every  climate.  It  has  reached  its 
greatest  cultural  development  in  the  United  States,  which 
is  the  principal  apple-producing  country  in  the  world. 

It  is  interesting  to  know  that  apple-culture  in  this  coun- 
try developed  almost  simultaneously  with  the  settling  of 
the  early  colonies.  Early  records  show  that  apple  trees 
were  being  grown  in  New  England  within  a  few  years  after 
the  founding  of  the  Plymouth  colony.  In  1648  Governor 
Endicott  exchanged  with  Wm.  Trask  500  apple  trees  of 
three  years'  growth  for  200  acres  of  land.  Other  frag- 
mentary information  taken  from  the  history  of  the  New 
England  settlements  indicates  that  apples  were  being 


Importance  and  History  of  the  Apple  Industry       21 

grown  in  that  region  as  early  as  1650,  and  that  numerous 
plantings  there  and  elsewhere  had  been  made  by  1700. 
Among  the  early  varieties  mentioned  were  Pearmain,  Rus- 
setin,  Long  Apple  and  Kreton  Pippins. 

The  two  leading  apple  regions  in  New  York  State,  the 
Hudson  Valley  and  western  New  York  or  Lake  Shore 
region,  were  recognized  in  the  early  development  of  the 
apple  industry  in  New  York.  It  appears  in  the  early 
history  of  the  Dutch  settlements  in  the  Hudson  Valley  that 
apple  trees  were  planted  near  Kinderhook  not  long  after 
1700.  Plantings  also  occurred  in  Long  Island  at  about 
the  same  date. 

Pioneers  report  apple  plantings  in  western  New  York  as 
early  as  1750.  It  must  be  remembered  that  this  region 
was  in  a  much  more  primitive  state  of  development  at  this 
time  than  the  New  England  and  Hudson  Valley  sections. 
Legendary  history  suggests  that  apple  seeds  preceded  the 
progress  of  civilization  into  western  New  York  and,  falling 
into  the  hands  of  Indian  tribes,  notably  the  Senecas  and 
Cayugas,  were  scattered  throughout  this  part  of  the  state. 
General  Sullivan  is  reported  to  have  found  bearing  apple 
trees  laden  with  fruit  near  Seneca  Lake  as  early  as  1779. 

It  must  not  be  thought  that  these  early  plantings  were  of 
commercial  importance.  They  were  isolated,  small  in  ex- 
tent, but  nevertheless  represented  interesting  landmarks  in 
the  development  of  apple-culture  in  this  country.  Com- 
mercial apple-growing  in  New  York  really  dates  back  to 
about  1860.  Prior  to  this  time  A.  J.  Downing,  who  was 
born  in  1802  and  later  conducted  a  nursery  at  Newburgh, 
had  been  a  very  important  and  influencing  factor  in  the 
development  of  the  apple  industry  in  the  Hudson  Valley 
region.  A.  J.  Downing  died  in  1852  after  having  pub- 


The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

lished  in  1845  his  "  Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees  of  America." 
Charles  Downing,  his  brother,  remained  a  leading  author- 
ity on  apple  varieties  and  apple-growing  until  1885. 

In  1840  George  Ellwanger  and  Patrick  Barry  started 
the  Mt.  Hope  nurseries  at  Rochester,  New  York.  Barry 
was  one  of  the  pioneers  in  the  apple  industry  and  had  much 
to  do  in  making  western  New  York  the  leading  nursery 
and  apple-growing  region. 

Jonathan  Chapman,  or  Johnny  Appleseed,  the  name  by 
which  he  was  more  commonly  known,  had  much  to  do  with 
the  spread  of  the  apple  westward  from  New  York.  Chap- 
man was  an  eccentric  character.  It  seems  that  he  spent 
much  of  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  in  roaming 
through  Ohio  and  Indiana,  at  that  time  a  wild  undeveloped 
country.  By  carrying  apple  seeds  about  with  him  and 
sowing  them  broadcast,  he  effected  a  wide  extension  in 
apple  plantings  throughout  this  region.  Being  of  an  in- 
tense religious  nature,  his  life  and  activities  have  a  roman- 
tic interest  which  have  been  the  subject  of  much  writing. 
His  descendants  are  actively  interested  apple-growers  in 
southern  Ohio  to-day. 

From  the  standpoint  of  historic  interest,  few  regions  ex- 
cel the  Piedmont  of  Virginia.  Although  the  Newtown  ap- 
ple originated  on  Long  Island,  it  was  later  introduced  into 
Albemarle  County,  Virginia,  early  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury and  has  been  prominently  identified  with  the  develop- 
ment of  the  apple  industry  in  this  region,  under  the  name 
of  Albemarle  Pippin.  Albemarle  Pippins  were  exported 
to  England  from  Virginia  as  early  as  1759.  Thomas  Jef- 
ferson was  cultivating  this  variety  at  Monticello,  his  coun- 
try place  in  Virginia,  before  the  Revolution.  It  has  been 
authentically  stated  that  so  pleased  was  Queen  Victoria 


Importance  and  History  of  the  Apple  Industry       23 

with  several  barrels  of  Virginia  Albemarle  Pippins  pre- 
sented to  her  during  the  first  year  of  her  reign  by  the  late 
Arthur  Stevenson,  American  minister  to  England,  that  she 
caused  the  import  tax  on  apples  to  be  removed.  Since  that 
time  apple  exportations  to  England  have  rapidly  increased. 

While  certain  species  of  wild  crabs  are  native  to  the 
prairie  states  and  doubtless  isolated  plantings  occurred  in 
this  region  prior  to  the  Civil  War,  it  was  after  1860,  at 
the  time  of  the  influx  of  many  early  pioneers,  that  apple 
trees  were  brought  into  the  country  west  of  the  Mississippi 
River.  The  apple  industry  in  this  section  did  not  begin  to 
assume  commercial  importance  until  the  eighties  and  the 
decade  following.  It  was  at  this  time  that  many  of  the 
older  orchards  were  planted  in  the  Ozarks,  Missouri  River 
region  and  southern  Illinois.  Good  prices  for  apples  in 
the  late  eighties  stimulated  planting  and  it  was  during  the 
nineties  that  the  heavy  commercial  apple  plantings  were 
made  in  the  Middle  West. 

The  rapidly  increasing  importance  of  the  western  apple 
regions  attracts  considerable  attention  to  the  history  and 
development  of  apple  culture  of  the  Far  West.  Probably 
the  first  apple  trees  on  the  Pacific  Coast  were  grown  at 
Fort  Vancouver,  Washington,  where  employees  of  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company  are  reported  to  have  planted  seeds, 
carried  from  England,  as  early  in  1825. 

The  Parjaro  Valley  or  Watsonville  section  of  California 
is  the  oldest  commercial  apple  region  in  the  Far  West. 
The  agricultural  history  of  this  region  dates  back  to  about 
1820  when  Don  Antonia  Maria  Castro  applied  to  the  gov- 
ernment of  Spain  for  a  grant  of  land  along  the  Pajaro 
River,  which  he  called  Vega  del  Rio  del  Pajaro.  Several 
large  land  grants  were  given  to  the  Spanish  Dons  during 


24  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

the    next   twenty    years,    but    all    were    used    for    stock- 
raising. 

In  1853  the  first  apple  orchard  planted  by  an  American 
in  this  region  was  set  out  on  the  Jesse  D.  Carr  place,  now 
the  Sillman  homestead.  This  orchard  was  about  two  acres 
in  extent  and  contained  a  mixture  of  fruit.  Some  of 
these  trees  are  still  in  bearing.  The  second  apple  orchard 
in  the  Pajaro  Valley  was  planted  by  Wm.  F.  White  in 
1854.  These  first  two  plantings  were  home  orchards. 
The  first  commercial  orchards  in  the  Pajaro  Valley  were 
set  out  by  Isaac  Williams  and  Judge  R.  F.  Peckman  in 
1858.  One  planted  thirteen  acres  and  the  other  six  acres. 
The  early  varieties  grown  were  Smith's  Cider,  Rhode  Is- 
land Greening,  Gravenstein,  JSTewtown  Pippin  and  Belle- 
flower.  The  first  shipment  of  apples  from  the  Pajaro  Val- 
ley was  made  in  1867  by  Isaac  Williams  who  sold  his  fruit 
in  San  Francisco.  Increased  demand  for  fruit  stimulated 
.apple  planting  and  a  large  number  of  the  present  orchards 
were  set  out  in  the  period  between  1880  and  1900. 

The  output  of  the  Watsonville  section  was  assuming 
commercial  proportions  many  years  before  such  sections  as 
the  Yakima  and  Wenatchee  valleys  in  the  Northwest  had 
come  into  prominence. 

It  is  generally  thought  that  the  oldest  apple  orchards  in 
the  Yakima  Valley  were  planted  about  1875  to  1876. 
Near  Fort  Simcoe,  twenty-seven  miles  south  of  North 
Yakima,  stands  an  orchard  planted  by  an  Indian,  Klickitat 
Peter,  in  1877.  This  is  probably  the  oldest  apple  planting 
in  what  was  later  destined  to  become  one  of  the  premier 
apple-growing  regions. 

In  1888  there  were  a  few  family  orchards  in  the  Yakima 
district,  but  probably  the  first  commercial  planting  of 


Importance  and  History  of  the  Apple  Industry       25 

fruit-trees  in  Yakima  was  made  in  1888  by  H.  J.  Bicknell, 
in  what  is  known  as  Parker  Bottom.  In  the  spring  of 
1889,  Fred  Thompson  set  out  in  the  same  locality  what  was 
probably  the  first  commercial  apple  orchard  in  the  valley. 
The  whole  planting  consisted  of  ten  acres  and  included 
three  acres  of  prunes,  three  acres  of  peaches,  three  acres 
of  Ben  Davis  apples  and  one  acre  of  pears. 

In  1888  and  1881)  two  irrigation  companies,  one  to  un- 
dertake the  Selah  project  and  the  other  what  is  now  the 
Sunnyside  Government  project,  were  organized.  At  this 
time  a  few  express  shipments  of  fresh  fruit  had  been  sent 
to  the  coast  from  the  small  home  orchards. 

In  1894  the  total  apple  output  shipped  from  the  Yakima 
Valley  probably  did  not  exceed  twenty-five  cars.  Fruit 
was  layer  packed,  but  not  wrapped,  the  old  sixty-pound 
box  being  in  common  use.  In  1896  Fred  Thompson 
shipped  from  the  Yakima  Valley  what  was  probably  the 
first  car  of  fruit  from  this  region  to  be  sold  east  of  the 
Mississippi  River.  It  was  in  1894  that  the  apple  planting 
period  really  began,  and  the  most  extensive  plantings  were 
made  in  the  years  1900  to  1908. 

The  history  and  development  of  the  Wenatchee  Valley, 
which  is  probably  the  most  intensive  apple  region  in  the 
country,  was  even  more  recent  than  the  development  of 
the  Yakima  Valley.  The  date  of  the  first  apple  plantings 
in  Wenatchee  is  given  by  some  as  1873,  others  1876.  The 
first  fruit-trees  were  set  out  by  Miller  Brothers  who  later 
established  the  first  irrigating  ditch  in  this  region  in  1883. 

Practically  the  entire  Wenatchee  Valley  was  a  barren 
waste  until  1896  when  the  Gunn  ditch  was  built  to  water 
600  acres  of  land.  In  1901  W.  T.  Clark,  coming  from 
Korth  Yakima,  interested  himself  in  the  organization  of 


26  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

the  High  Line  Canal,  designed  to  water  9000  acres  of  or- 
chard land.  This  ditch  was  completed  to  Wenatchee  in 
October,  1903.  The  completion  of  the  High  Line  Canal 
marked  the  beginning  of  important  orchard  development 
in  the  Wenatchee  Valley.  By  1913  there  were  about 
20,000  acres  of  irrigable  land  under  the  different  ditches 
established  in  the  Wenatchee  Valley. 

The  Indians  occupied  the  Grand  Valley  until  1880,  at 
which  time  the  history  of  fruit-growing  in  western  Color- 
ado begins.  In  the  spring  of  1883  several  hundred  root- 
grafts  were  put  out  in  the  Grand  Valley,  only  a  fraction 
of  which  lived.  The  first  fruit  plantings  were  made  in 
the  lower  lands  of  the  Valley  about  1885  or  1886.  In 
1882  a  farmer  living  at  Paonia,  in  Delta  County,  a  local- 
ity of  lesser  importance  than  the  Grand  Valley,  purchased 
twenty-six  trees  of  mixed  varieties  from  Rochester,  New 
York,  at  one  dollar  each.  Of  these,  three  survived.  As 
in  the  Yakima  and  Wenatchee  valleys,  principal  orchard 
development  occurred  in  Colorado  after  1900. 

From  this  fragmentary  history  of  apple-culture  in  the 
United  States,  it  may  be  seen  that  while  apple  trees  have 
been  grown  in  home  orchards  for  nearly  300  years,  it  has 
only  been  within  comparatively  recent  years  that  the  in- 
dustry has  assumed  commercial  proportions. 

SCIENTIFIC    CLASSIFICATION 

The  apple  belongs  to  the  important  genus  Pyrus,  of  the 
Rose  family  (Rosacex).  This  genus  includes  the  apples 
and  pears.  The  common  apple  is  Pyrus  Mains,  sup- 
posed to  be  native  to  Europe  and  Western  Temperate  Asia. 
Within  this  species,  as  it  is  commonly  broadly  accepted, 
are  included  the  commercial  apples,  the  Paradise  and 


Importance  and  History  of  the  Apple  Industry       27 

Doucin  dwarf  forms,  so-called  bloomless  apple,  and  others. 
The  Siberian  crab  is  Pyrus  baccata.  The  growth  is  more 
slender  and  wiry  than  in  P.  Mains,  twigs  and  leaves  not 
woolly  as  in  that  species,  the  fruit  small,  long-stemmed, 
and  with  the  calyx  falling  away  at  the  blossom  end.  Hy- 
brids occur  between  Pyrus  Mains  and  P.  baccata.  Some 
of  the  apples  known  as  "  crabs  "  are  only  small  and  acrid 
fruit-forms  of  P.  Mains. 

Several  species  of  crab-apple  are  native  to  J^orth  Amer- 
ica. One  of  them  is  Pyrus  ioensis,  the  prairie  crab.  It 
is  not  cultivated  for  its  fruit,  but  the  Soulard,  Fluke,  and 
others  are  supposed  to  be  hybrids  between  this  species 
and  Pyrus  Mains. 

Some  botanists  separate  the  pears  and  apples  into  dif- 
ferent genera.  Under  this  disposition,  the  pears  are  re- 
tained in  Pyrus  and  the  apples  take  the  generic  name 
Malus.  The  common  apple  then  becomes  Mains  corn- 
munis,  and  the  wild  or  run-wild  form  of  it  in  Europe  is 
called  M.  sylvestris. 

A  number  of  oriental  species  of  Pyrus  (Malus)  are 
grown  for  ornament,  but  they  need  not  be  discussed  here. 


CHAPTER  II 


LEADING  APPLE  REGIONS  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES 

THERE  has  been  a  noticeable  tendency  in  recent  years 
towards  the  centralization  of  the  commercial  apple  indus- 
try in  a  relatively  few  intensive  regions.  A  glance  at  the 


FlG.  1. —  The  principal  apple-growing  regions  in  the  United 
i  States. 

outline  map  showing  the  principal  apple-growing  regions 
reveals  this.  (See  Fig.  1.)  It  is  estimated  that  approx- 
imately 80  per  cent  of  the  total  commercial  apple  crop  of 

28 


Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         29 

the  United  States  is  produced  in  these  relatively  few  re- 
stricted districts.  In  many  parts  of  this  country  there  is 
scarcely  a  farm  that  has  not  a  small  home  orchard  of  apple 
trees.  As  has  been  emphasized  elsewhere,  production 
from  these  home  orchards  is  having  less  and  less  commer- 
cial significance  and  interest  centers  in  a  few  well-defined 
regions. 

By  describing  each  important  apple  region  and  pointing 
out  its  individual  characteristics,  it  is  hoped  to  convey  to 
the  reader  a  mental  picture  of  the  commercial  apple  indus- 
try as  it  has  been  developed  in  these  well-favored  regions. 

WESTERN    NEW    YORK    ( PLATE    l) 

From  the  standpoint  of  quantity  production  and  total 
acreage,  western  New  York  is  the  most  important  apple 
region  in  the  United  States.  As  early  as  1860  the  produc- 
tivity of  this  section  became  apparent,  and  the  high  qual- 
ity apples  outsold  those  from  other  localities.  Good  qual- 
ity and  high  yields  were  sufficient  to  overcome  the  ad- 
vantages which  many  other  regions  may  have  enjoyed  from 
being  closer  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard  cities ;  and  the  center 
of  commercial  barreled  apple  production  was  established 
and  has  remained  in  western  Xew  York. 

Previous  to  1919,  one-fourth  of  the  normal  commercial 
apple  crop  of  the  United  States  was  produced  in  the  state 
of  Xew  York,  but  the  Northwest  now  produces  so  many 
apples  that  this  will  probably  never  be  true  again.  Heav- 
iest plantings  are  in  Xiagara,  Monroe,  Orleans  and  Wayne 
counties  which  border  on  Lake  Ontario.  Each  of  these 
counties  has  an  apple  acreage  of  25,000  to  35,000  acres 
and  each  is  capable  of  producing  from  a  half  to  a  million 
barrels  of  apples  annually.  Counties  of  less  importance 


30  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

included  in  this  region  are  Ontario,  Yates,  Seneca,  Cayuga, 
Genesee,  Onondaga,  Oswego,  Wyoming  and  Tompkins. 

In  reality,  the  world's  most  important  barreled  apple 
region  is  largely  in  a  ten-mile  belt  along  Lake  Ontario,  ex- 
tending from  Niagara  Falls  to  Oswego,  New  York,  a  dis- 
tance of  about  125  miles.  In  this  section  much  of  the 
present  bearing  acreage  was  planted  in  the  late  sixties 
and  in  the  seventies  of  the  preceding  century.  In  other 
words,  the  average  age  of  bearing  orchards  is  over  forty 
years.  Probably  nowhere  else  in  this  country  will  trees 
retain  such  vigor  and  productivity  at  forty  to  fifty  years 
of  age  as  in  western  Xew  York.  The  old  apple  orchards 
along  the  ridge  road  from  Buffalo  to  Rochester  have  with- 
stood alternate  periods  of  neglect  and  care,  according  to 
the  vicissitudes  of  the  apple  industry,  and  yet  they  remain 
in  most  instances  vigorous  and  productive  at  advanced  age. 

The  permanency  of  western  Xew  York  as  a  leading 
apple  region  may  be  explained  partly  by  the  conservatism 
of  the  Xew  York  grower.  Instead  of  devoting  himself 
entirely  to  apples,  the  average  farmer  in  western  Xew 
York  has  100  acres  or  more  of  farm  land  of  which  only  10 
to  20  acres  are  in  apples.  His  other  crops  have  main- 
tained him  in  poor  apple  years.  The  yields  on  the  com- 
mercial full  bearing  orchards  average  from  75  to  100  bar- 
rels to  the  acre. 

Some  idea  of  the  importance  of  Xew  York  as  an  apple 
state  may  be  gained  from  the  fact  that  the  1918  commercial 
apple  crop  was  estimated  at  5,950,000  barrels,  over  two- 
thirds  of  which  came  from  western  Xew  York.  Baldwin 
represents  nearly  one-half  and  Rhode  Island  Greening 
about  20  per  cent  of  the  total  production.  •  Northern  Spy. 
Roxbury  Russet,  Tompkins  King,  Duchess  of  Oldenburg, 


Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         31 

Hubbardston,  Wealthy  and  Twenty  Ounce  comprise  the 
greater  part  of  the  remaining  commercial  production. 

As  might  be  expected,  large  storage  plants  have  been 
built  in  nearly  all  of  the  apple  towns.  Some  of  the  more 
important  apple  centers  are  Rochester,  Lockport,  Medina, 
Albion,  Brockport,  Sodus,  East  Williamson,  North  Rose, 
Canandaigua  and  Holcomb.  The  barrel  is  used  almost 
exclusively  and  very  little  of  the  crop  moves  in  bulk. 

A  high  percentage  of  the  dried  apple  production  of  this 
country  comes  from  the  western  New  York  apple  region. 
For  many  years  Wayne  County  has  been  the  center  of 
dried  apple  production  and  in  some  seasons  as  much  as  40 
per  cent  of  its  crop  is  used  for  drying.  Nearly  every 
orchardist  in  this  county  has  his  own  drier,  and  the  pro- 
duction comes  largely  from  small  home  driers  rather  than 
from  large  commercial  plants. 

There  is  considerable  variation  in  the  types  of  orchards 
in  western  New  York.  Probably  80  to  90  per  cent  of 
the  bearing  orchards  are  over  twenty  years  of  age  and 
there  are  many  profitable  orchards  over  fifty  years  old.  It 
is  believed  that  the  trees  in  this  region  reach  their  maxi- 
mum bearing  capacity  at  forty  to  fifty  years.  The  earlier 
plantings  were  set  about  33  x  33  which  proved  too  close 
on  account  of  the  large  size  which  the  trees  attained.  New 
plantings  are  being  made  40  x  40. 

Orchard  values  in  western  New  York  have  never  reached 
the  high  figure  attained  in  some  apple  regions.  Seldom 
are  bearing  orchards  valued  at  more  than  $500  an  acre. 
It  is  difficult  to  give  orchard  values  in  any  region  and 
particularly  in  western  New  York  where  the  orchard  us- 
ually goes  with  the  farm  and  where  varying  care  is  given. 
Some  orchards  are  worth  little  more  than  the  land  they 


32  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

occupy.     These  are  the  old  orchards  which  have  received 
indifferent  care  for  many  years. 

HUDSON    VALLEY 

The  Hudson  Valley  is  one  of  the  well  known  eastern 
regions,  the  important  commercial  plantings  extending 
along  the  Hudson  River  from  Saratoga  County  south  to 
Westchester  County,  and  including  both  sides  of  the  val- 
ley for  a  width  of  several  miles.  Tbe  normal  production 
for  this  region  is  about  600,000  barrels  and  originates 
largely  in  the  counties  of  Columbia,  Dutchess,  Greene  and 
Ulster,  with  lesser  amounts  in  Albany,  Saratoga,  Rensse- 
laer,  Orange,  Putnam  and  Westchester.  The  industry  is 
very  intensive  about  the  towns  of  Coxsackie,  Ravena,  Ger- 
mantown,  Red  Hook,  Millbrook,  Athens,  Milton  and  Ulster 
Park. 

Much  of  the  land  is  rough  and  hard  to  work  and  this 
region  is  not  as  well  adapted  to  general  farming  as  western 
New  York.  The  soil  in  some  instances  is  more  or  less  de- 
ficient in  fertility. 

The  varieties  grown  are  principally  Baldwin,  Greening, 
Ben  Davis  and  Spy,  with  considerable  commercial  quanti- 
ties of  Mclntosh,  Duchess,  Gravenstein,  Holland  Pippin, 
Fall  Pippin,  English  and  Roxbury  Russet. 

Trees  are  much  the  same  in  age  as  in  western  New 
York,  the  orchards  in  many  cases  being  even  older.  How- 
ever, there  is  a  larger  proportion  of  young  plantings  and 
orchards  coming  into  bearing  in  the  Hudson  Valley  than  in 
the  western  part  of  the  state  and  particularly  is  this  true  of 
Dutchess  and  Columbia  counties. 

The  apples  from  the  Hudson  Valley  are  shipped  largely 
by  boat  and  rail  to  New  York  and  eastern  markets.  Many 


Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         33 

apples  are  grown  here  for  the  fancy  trade  demand  and 
such  varieties  usually  bring  good  returns,  due  to  the  prox- 
imity to  market.  The  average  annual  yields  are  less  than 
in  western  New  York,  due  largely  to  soil  conditions.  The 
future  of  the  Hudson  Valley  fruit  industry  seems  assured 
on  account  of  its  proximity  to  market. 

NEW   ENGLAND    BALDWIN    BELT 

The  intensive  apple  sections  of  Maine,  New  Hampshire 
and  Massachusetts  are  included  in  what  is  known  as  the 
New  England  Baldwin  Belt,  so  called  on  account  of  the 
prominence  of  the  Baldwin  variety.  Beginning  in  south- 
ern Maine,  this  region  extends  through  southern  New 
Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  and  into  Connecticut,  includ- 
ing both  the  intensive  and  more  scattered  and  outlying 
apple  plantings  in  this  territory.  In  Maine  the  leading 
apple  counties  are  Oxford,  Kennebec,  Franklin  and  Andro- 
scoggin;  in  New  Hampshire,  Rockingham  and  Hills- 
boro;  while  the  heaviest  apple  production  in  Massachu- 
setts comes  from  Middlesex,  Franklin  and  Worcester  coun- 
ties. 

As  above  stated,  Baldwin  is  the  leading  New  England 
variety,  while  Rhode  Island  Greening,  Northern  Spy,  Mc- 
Intosh,  Wealthy,  Gravenstein,  Tolman,  Ben  Davis,  Porter 
and  Stark  have  commercial  importance.  The  New  Eng- 
land apple  trees,  like  those  of  New  York,  are  for  the  most 
part  old.  Great  numbers  of  them  have  gone  out  of  com- 
mercial bearing  in  recent  years  and  especially  during  the 
very  cold  winter  of  1917-1918,  when  it  was  estimated  that 
over  a  million  Baldwin  trees  of  this  section  were  killed. 

The  gipsy  moth  has  done  heavy  damage  to  the  orchards 
in  New  Hampshire,  and  the  commercial  production  for  the 


34  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

New  England  Baldwin  belt  has  decreased  within  recent 
years.  A  great  number  of  young  orchards  are  coming  in, 
particularly  in  favored  spots  of  New  Hampshire  and  Mass- 
achusetts, and  these  new  orchards  will  tend  to  make  up  loss 
among  older  trees.  Many  varieties,  such  as  Wealthy,  Mc- 
Intosh  and  other  fall  or  early  winter  sorts,  are  proving 
profitable.  Mclntosh  and  Wealthy  are  becoming  espe- 
cially popular  in  the  newer  plantings.  Such  varieties  as 
Stark,  Yellow  Bellflower,  Porter,  Tolman  Sweet,  Russets, 
and  many  other  old  varieties  are  still  found  in  considerable 
quantity,  but  are  no  longer  being  planted. 

The  orchards  of  New  England  for  the  most  part  are 
small  in  size  and  come  more  nearly  being  farm  orchards 
than  do  those  of  any  other  commercial  section.  They  are 
in  many  cases  too  small  to  be  operated  profitably  on  a 
strictly  commercial  basis. 

A  large  part  of  the  New  England  apple  crop  is  marketed 
locally,  particularly  in  Massachusetts  where  many  apples 
are  shipped  in  bulk  or  hauled  in  trucks  to  Boston  and 
nearby  markets.  In  normal  times  New  England  exports 
large  quantities  of  apples,  particularly  of  the  Baldwin  va- 
riety. The  barrel  is  the  standard  package  for  New  Eng- 
land apples  when  shipped  in  quantity  to  outside  markets, 
although  for  local  consumption  basket,  box  or  bulk  trade 
predominates.  In  many  cases,  strictly  high-grade  apples 
are  put  up  in  boxes.  The  normal  commercial  produc- 
tion for  this  region  is  about  1,250,000  barrels,  and  it  is 
not  likely  to  increase ;  in  fact,  unless  planting  is  stimulated 
to  a  greater  degree  than  at  present,  production  will  de- 
crease somewhat  on  account  of  the  number  of  old  orchards 
which  are  dying  or  are  losing  their  vigor.  Production  of 
high-grade  fruit  will  increase. 


Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         35 


THE    CHAMPLAIN    DISTRICT 

The  Champlain  district  includes  that  portion  of  New 
York  and  Vermont  bordering  on  Lake  Champlain  and 
Lake  George.  It  is  situated  in  a  very  rigorous  climate 
and  only  hardy  varieties  will  grow  there.  It  is  famous 
for  its  fine  quality  fruit  which  brings  high  prices  on  the 
market.  In  area  the  Champlain  region  is  small  as  com- 
pared with  most  other  commercial  districts.  It  includes 
the  counties  of  Grand  Isle,  Addison,  Chittenden  and  Rut- 
land, Vermont,  and  the  counties  of  Clinton  and  Essex, 
New  York.  The  bulk  of  the  production  originates  near 
the  towns  of  Middlebury,  Shelburne,  Rutland  and  Danby 
in  Vermont.  From  a  strictly  commercial  standpoint, 
Grand  Isle  County,  Vermont,  an  island  in  Lake  Cham- 
plain,  is  the  most  important  of  all  the  counties  in  this 
region.  Peru,  Plattsburg,  Lewis  and  Crown  Point  are 
towns  about  which  the  apple  industry  centers  on  the  New 
York  side. 

The  varieties  grown  in  the  Champlain  region  are  Mc- 
Intosh,  Fameuse,  Rhode  Island  Greening  and  Northern 
Spy.  Varieties  of  less  importance  are  Baldwin,  Ben 
Davis  and  Wealthy.  The  district  is  best  known  for  its  Mc- 
Intosh,  Northern  Spy  and  Fameuse  production. 

Champlain  orchards  are  in  the  main  much  younger  than 
those  in  other  parts  of  Vermont  and  New  York.  The 
Grand  Isle  plantings,  largely  Mclntosh,  are  particularly 
young.  Although  great  damage  was  done  to  the  whole 
Champlain  district  by  the  severe  winter  of  1917-1918,  the 
young  plantings  will  no  doubt  soon  make  up  for  this  loss 
and  bring  the  production  up  to  normal.  Mclntosh  trees 
survived  the  severe  winter  better  than  any  other  variety,  a 


36  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

fact  which  will  stimulate  their  planting  to  an  even  greater 
degree. 

NEW    JEESEY 

The  commercial  apple  production  of  New  Jersey  orig- 
inates largely  in  Burlington,  Camden  and  Gloucester  coun- 
ties in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  state  and  in  Honmouth 
County  in  the  northeast.  The  southwestern  apple  counties 
of  New  Jersey  are  all  within  easy  access  by  truck  to  Phil- 
adelphia, while  Monmouth  County  production  reaches  New 
York  City  easily  by  rail. 

In  former  years,  plantings  in  the  western  and  north- 
western part  of  the  state  along  the  Pennsylvania  border 
were  responsible  for  a  considerable  production  of  winter 
apples,  but  this  region  has  declined  in  importance  in  re- 
cent years.  The  new  orchards  in  New  Jersey  are  made  up 
largely  of  summer  varieties.  The  varieties  of  importance 
in  Monmouth  County  are  Ben  Davis,  Winesap,  Graven- 
stein,  English  Codling,  Wealthy,  Twenty  Ounce,  Olden- 
burg and  Red  Astrachan.  For  the  counties  in  the  south- 
western part  of  the  state,  Starr,  Early  Ripe,  Williams 
Early  Red  and  Yellow  Transparent  predominate,  while 
Winesap  and  Stayman  are  favorite  late  varieties. 

Considerable  interest  in  apple-growing  is  being  taken  in 
the  group  of  counties  near  Philadelphia,  of  which  Burling- 
ton, Camden,  Gloucester  and  Cumberland  are  most  im- 
portant. Considerable  planting  is  being  done  and  much 
young  acreage  is  to  be  found  in  these  counties.  Riverton, 
Moorestown  and  Burlington  are  towns  about  which  many 
commercial  orchards  are  located. 

The  early  apple  crop,  which  makes  up  such  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  New  Jersey  production,  is  shipped  largely  in 
five-eighths-bushel  or  bushel  baskets.  A  small  part  of  the 


Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         3? 


crop  moves  out  in  barrels,  but  the  five-eighths-bushel  basket 
is  popular  for  winter  as  well  as  summer  varieties.  The 
commercial  apple  production  for  New  Jersey  is  increasing, 
due  to  the  greater  output  from  the  group  of  southwestern 
counties,  including  Burlington,  Camden,  Gloucester  and 
Cumberland  counties. 

The  average  commercial  production  for  the  state  is  esti- 
mated at  about  500,000  barrels,  of  which  a  considerable 
percentage  is  made  up  of  early  varieties.  The  commercial 
apple  sections  in  New  Jersey  are  very  favorably  located 
with  respect  to  markets  and  the  future  of  the  industry  in 
this  state  seems  bright. 

DELAWARE    ( PLATE    III) 

The  apple  section  in  Delaware  is  really  more  or  less  of 
a  continuation  of  the  New  Jersey  district.  Varieties, 
methods  of  marketing  and  even  soil  conditions  are  very 
much  the  same.  The  commercial  apple  orchards  of  Dela- 
ware are  principally  in  Kent  and  Sussex  counties. 
Plantings  are  intensive  about  the  towns  of  Wyoming  and 
Bridgeville.  The  average  production  for  the  state  is 
nearly  200,000  barrels,  much  of  this  being  made  up  of 
early  varieties  which  are  entirely  off  the  market  by 
August  1st. 

The  early  apple  industry  in  Delaware  proved  profitable, 
especially  during  the  few  years  prior  to  1919,  and  at  the 
present  time  it  is  experiencing  a  marked  growth.  Many 
new  and  very  large  orchards  are  being  set  out.  Williams 
Early  Red,  Red  Astrachan,  Yellow  Transparent  and  Early 
Ripe  are  particularly  popular  among  the  early  varieties, 
while  Stayman  leads  among  the  late  varieties. 

Large  orchards  are  not  uncommon  in  Delaware,  there 

68324 


38  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

being  several  commercial  orchards,  over  500  acres  in 
size.  For  the  most  part,  these  large  tracts  are  carefully 
and  systematically  managed,  although  many  have  not  yet 
attained  full  bearing. 

Delaware  growers  ship  practically  all  their  early  fruit 
in  five-eighths-bushel  or  bushel  baskets,  particularly  the 
former,  while  the  late  apples  are  usually  barreled.  Dela- 
ware is  primarily  devoted  to  the  production  of  early  var- 
ieties and  this  has  brought  about  its  prominence  in  the 
commercial  apple  industry.  Much  of  the  acreage  is  young 
and  an  increased  production  is  to  be  expected. 

SHENANDOAH-CUMBERLAND    DISTRICT 

The  Shenandoah-Cumberland  district  is  the  term  applied 
to  that  section  of  Virginia,  Maryland,  West  Virginia  and 
Pennsylvania  which  is  included  in  the  Shenandoah  and 
Cumberland  valleys.  This  region  has  somewhat  recently 
come  into  prominence  and  is  yet  only  approaching  its  max- 
imum production.  By  mentioning  Frederick  County, 
Virginia;  Berkeley  County,  West  Virginia;  Washington 
County,  Maryland;  Franklin  and  Adams  counties,  Penn- 
sylvania ;  and  counties  in  close  proximity  to  these,  a  more 
or  less  compact  region  is  defined  which  rivals  western 
irrigated  districts  in  intensity  and  exceeds  New  England 
in  normal  production.  A  full  or  normal  crop  for  the 
Shenandoah-Cumberland  would  be  over  3,000,000  barrels. 

The  two  towns  about  which  the  apple  industry  of  this 
region  centers  are  Martinsburg,  West  Virginia,  and 
Winchester,  Virginia.  Other  important  apple  towns  are 
Staunton,  Virginia,  Chambersburg,  Biglerville  and 
Waynesboro,  Pennsylvania,  and  Hancock,  Maryland. 
The  counties  of  Berkeley,  West  Virginia,  and  Frederick, 


PLATE  III. —  ( 1 )  A  typical  commercial  apple  orchard  in  the 
Missouri  Valley,  Kansas.  (2)  A  fifteen-year  old  Newtown  or- 
chard near  Medford,  Oregon,  in  need  of  water.  (3)  Red  Astra  - 
chan  orchard  in  Delaware.  Trees  are  too  high  and  difficult  to 
harvest. 


Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         39 

Virginia,  rank  among  the  highest  producing  counties  in 
the  country.  Each  is  capable  of  yielding  over  a  half 
million  barrels  of  high  quality  fruit  in  good  crop  years. 
Augusta  County,  Virginia,  has  an  enormous  acreage  of 
young  trees  and  will  soon  rival  these  counties  in  produc- 
tion. Franklin  and  Adams  counties,  Pennsylvania,  with 
but  20  to  30  per  cent  of  their  trees  in  bearing,  produce  a 
quarter  million  barrels  each  annually  and  their  production 
is  rapidly  increasing.  The  same  is  true  of  Washington 
County,  Maryland. 

The  York  Imperial  is  the  leading  variety  for  the  Shen- 
andoah-Cumberland  and  the  Ben  Davis  is  second  in  import- 
ance. Grimes  Golden,  Stayman,  Black  Twig,  Delicious 
and  Yellow  Transparent  have  been  planted  extensively. 
The  York  Imperial  represents  fully  40  per  cent  and  Ben 
Davis  about  20  per  cent  of  the  regional  production. 
Stayman  and  Delicious  will  increase  in  commercial  pro- 
duction in  the  upper  Shenandoah  Valley  and  particularly 
in  Augusta  County.  Stayman  yields  are  increasing  very 
rapidly  in  Pennsylvania,  particularly  Adams  and  Frank- 
lin counties. 

The  average  orchard  in  the  Shenandoah-Cumberland  is 
fully  twenty  years  younger  than  those  in  New  York.  Most 
of  the  orchards  have  not  yet  reached  maximum  bearing; 
in  fact  a  very  large  percentage  of  the  trees  are  not  in 
bearing  at  all ;  particularly  is  this  true  for  Shenandoah, 
Rockingham  and  Augusta  counties,  Virginia,  where  enorm- 
ous acreages  are  just  coming  into  bearing. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  the  commercial  apple  plantings  in  the 
Shenandoah-Cumberland  represent  one  of  the  most  promis- 
ing regions  in  the  country.  The  trees  are  young,  and  rela- 
tively free  from  disease;  the  yields  are  high;  plantings 


40  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

are  centralized ;  and  possibilities  are  strong  for  a  rapidly 
increasing  production.  Practically  all  of  the  apples  are 
shipped  out  in  barrels,  largely  to  northern  markets.  A 
greater  relative  increase  in  production  may  be  expected 
from  this  district  than  from  any  other  outside  of  the  North- 
west. 

PIEDMONT    DISTRICT    OT1    VIRGINIA    ( PLATE    II ) 

In  total  production  several  regions  excel  the  Piedmont 
of  Virginia,  but  in  historic  interest  and  beauty  it  is  unsur- 
passed. The  Piedmont  region  extends  from  Patrick 
County  in  the  southern  part  of  Virginia,  north  along  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  Blue  Ridge  Mountains  to  the  Potomac 
at  Loudoun  County.  This  area  includes  the  famous  Albe- 
marle  Pippin  and  old  Winesap  district  of  Virginia,  which 
centers  in  the  counties  of  Albemarle  and  Nelson.  Other 
counties  of  importance  are  Franklin,  Roanoke,  Bedford, 
Amherst,  Patrick,  Rappahannock,  Loudoun  and  Culpepper. 
The  most  intensive  plantings  are  about  the  towns  of  Crozet, 
Afton,  Covesville,  in  the  heart  of  the  Piedmont,  and  also 
about  Roanoke,  Salem,  and  Stuart  farther  south. 

The  Albemarle  Pippin  plantings  for  which  the  Pied- 
mont is  famous  are  found  largely  in  the  old  orchards,  par- 
ticularly those  in  the  Rock  Fish  Valley  in  Nelson  County 
and  about  Covesville,  Crozet  and  Charlottesville  in  Albe- 
marle County.  Pippin  plantings  also  occur  in  the  eastern 
part  of  Nelson  County  and  farther  south  through  Amherst, 
Bedford,  and  as  far  as  the  Bent  Mountain  district  in  Roa- 
noke County.  Most  of  these  Albemarle  Pippin  plantings 
of  the  Piedmont  are  well  advanced  in  age  and  only  a  few 
young  trees  are  coming  on  to  replace  them. 

While  the  Piedmont  has  been  best  known  for  its  Albe- 


Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         41 

marie  Pippins  for  more  than  a  century  and  a  half,  the  old 
Winesap  is  more  widely  grown  and  is  produced  in  greater 
commercial  quantities  than  any  other  variety.  York  Im- 
perial represents  from  15  to  20  per  cent  of  the  regional 
production,  while  Stayman  and  Black  Twig  occur  in  some 
commercial  plantings.  The  age  of  the  Piedmont  orchards 
varies  from  a  few  years  to  a  century.  The  oldest  trees  in 
profitable  bearing  are  those  of  the  Albemarle  Pippin  or 
Xewtown  variety  which  was  highly  prized  in  the  English 
markets  a  century  ago.  On  account  of  late  bearing  and 
susceptibility  to  bitter-rot,  this  variety  is  less  popular  in 
the  newer  plantings.  Principal  commercial  plantings 
average  from  fifteen  to  twenty  years  of  age  and  lean  rather 
strongly  to  Winesap,  Stayman  and  York  Imperial.  A  full 
crop  for  this  region  would  be  about  800,000  barrels  but 
the  average  is  not  much  over  500,000  barrels. 

Piedmont  orchards  are  distinctly  mountainous  in  char- 
acter, most  of  them  being  situated  on  hill  or  mountain 
sides.  They  are  somewhat  difficult  to  work  and  harvesting 
operations  are  expensive.  Practically  all  the  fruit  is 
barreled  and  moves  to  outside  markets,  there  being  little 
home  trade.  Many  of  the  York  Imperials  and  Albemarle 
Pippins  are  exported.  While  annual  yields  do  not  gener- 
ally equal  those  of  the  Shenandoah-Cumberland  on  the 
west,  higher  quality  varieties  are  grown  and  better  prices 
are  received.  Among  the  disadvantages  to  be  considered 
in  this  region  is  the  prevalence  of  bitter-rot.  Root-rot  has 
also  caused  considerable  loss  and  the  growers  find  it  impos- 
sible to  control. 

A  considerable  acreage  of  young  trees  will  attain  full 
bearing  soon  after  1920  and  the  production  of  this  section 
will  doubtless  be  increased.  High  quality  fruit  and  a 


42  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

progressive  spirit  among  its  growers  insures  growth  and 
development  of  the  apple  industry  in  the  Piedmont. 

MINOE  EEGIONS   IN   PENNSYLVANIA,  WEST  VIEGINIA 
AND   VIEGINIA 

Aside  from  the  important  apple  regions  described,  a 
number  of  minor  regions  throughout  Pennsylvania,  West 
Virginia  and  Virginia  are  worthy  of  mention. 

In  the  northeastern  part  of  Pennsylvania,  particularly 
in  Luzerne  and  Lycoming  counties,  are  considerable  com- 
mercial apple  plantings  of  Baldwin,  Northern  Spy  and 
Rhode  Island  Greening.  These  conform  more  to  the  type 
of  orchards  in  western  New  York  than  to  those  in  Penn- 
sylvania's leading  apple  region  in  the  Cumberland  Valley 
district. 

Outside  of  the  eastern  Panhandle  section  included  in  the 
Shenandoah-Cumberland  region  already  described,  there 
are  no  extensive  commercial  apple  plantings  in  West  Vir- 
ginia except  in  Hancock  County  which  is  situated  at  the  tip 
of  the  northern  Panhandle  which  extends  northward  be- 
tween Pennsylvania  and  Ohio.  This  was  originally  the 
most  important  commercial  apple  district  in  West  Vir- 
ginia, but  it  has  long  since  been  eclipsed  by  the  great 
development  in  Berkeley  and  surrounding  counties.  The 
important  variety  grown  in  Hancock  County  is  the  Willow 
Twig,  well  known  on  the  Pittsburg  markets.  The  or- 
chards are  for  the  most  part  old  and  increased  commercial 
production  seems  unlikely. 

In  southwestern  Virginia  there  are  many  commercial 
orchards.  This  district  is  not  included  in  either  the 
Shenandoah-Cumberland  or  Piedmont  region.  The  var- 


Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         43 

ieties  grown  are  Winesap,  York  Imperial,  Rome  Beauty, 
Stayman,  Lowry,  Virginia  Beauty  and  Delicious. 

MOUNTAIN  REGION  OF  NORTH  CAROLINA 

The  mountain  district  of  North  Carolina  is  more  or  less 
a  continuation  of  the  Virginia  Piedmont.  Apples  have 
been  grown  in  the  mountains  of  western  North  Carolina 
for  many  years ;  it  is  said  that  many  of  the  old  plantings 
were  for  the  purpose  of  producing  apples  to  be  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  apple  brandy.  Certainly  a  great 
many  of  the  old  orchards  are  located  in  relatively  inaccess- 
ible and  remote  localities.  It  is  doubtful  whether  more 
than  5  per  cent  of  the  North  Carolina  apple  acreage  has 
ever  been  sprayed. 

When  the  manufacture  of  apple  brandy  was  discon- 
tinued, it  was  found  that  there  was  a  market  for  apples  in 
their  fresh  state  and  at  the  present  time  many  thousand 
bushels  of  fruit  produced  on  the  old  unsprayed  orchards 
are  hauled  down  the  mountain-sides  in  wagons  to  find  their 
way  to  the  market  in  bulk.  Improved  cultural  practices 
are  being  adopted  more  and  more  each  year. 

Apple  orchards  are  planted  iji  the  western  part  of  North 
Carolina,  extending  from  Surry  County,  bordering  on 
Patrick  County,  Virginia,  on  the  north,  almost  to  the 
extreme  southwestern  corner  of  the  state.  North  Carolina 
apple  orchards  represent  two  distinct  types.  While  for 
the  most  part  the  older  trees  are  neglected  and  unsprayed, 
there  are  very  intensive  and  strictly  commercial  plantings 
in  a  few  localities,  such  as  in  Surry  County  in  the  vicinity 
of  Mt.  Airy  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  state.  A  little 
farther  south  other  commercial  plantings  have  been  set  out 


44  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

in  the  vicinity  of  Taylorsville  and  Wilkesboro.  The  dried 
apple  industry  has  assumed  considerable  proportions  in 
this  locality. 

The  most  progressive  apple  section  in  North  Carolina 
is  in  Haywood  County  near  Waynesville.  Here  a  con- 
siderable number  of  strictly  commercial  apple  orchards 
have  been  set  out,  which  are  responsible  for  the  increasing 
commercial  output  of  this  section.  A  third  important 
commercial  region  is  in  Polk  and  Henderson  counties  in 
the  vicinity  of  Saluda  and  Hendersonville. 

While  most  of  the  North  Carolina  apple  crop  is  handled 
in  bulk,  the  product  from  the  later  commercial  plantings  is 
nearly  all  barreled,  and  finds  a  ready  sale  at  good  prices 
in  southern  markets.  In  addition  to  the  apple  counties 
already  named,  some  commercial  planting  is  found  in 
Watauga,  Madison,  Rutherford,  Alexander,  and  Jackson 
counties. 

The  leading  variety  of  the  old  orchards  is  the  Limber- 
twig  of  which  there  are  several  types,  including  the  Royal 
or  Brushy  Mountain  Limbertwig.  Winesap,  Stayman, 
Delicious,  and  Arkansas  (Black  Twig)  are  among  the  new 
varieties  predominating  in  the  younger  plantings.  Pro- 
duction of  these  varieties  will  increase  materially.  The 
Limbertwig,  although  a  very  good  apple,  owes  its  early 
popularity  to  the  fact  that  it  is  a  late  keeper.  Better 
known  and  higher  quality  varieties  are  supplanting  the 
Limbertwig  in  the  younger  orchards.  It  is  quite  apparent 
that  the  strictly  commercial  production  of  apples  from 
North  Carolina  will  be  increased  materially  when  the 
young  plantings  attain  full  bearing.  Surry  County  in  the 
northwest  central  part  of  the  state,  and  Haywood  County 


Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         45 

in  the  western  part,  will  be  the  main  centers  of  commer- 
cial production. 

A  full  crop  for  western  North  Carolina  at  this  time 
would  not  exceed  300,000  barrels  of  commercial  apples, 
of  which  the  larger  part  would  be  sold  in  bulk. 

MOUNTAIN  REGION  OF  GEORGIA 

While  not  as  yet  representing  great  commercial  pro- 
duction, an  apple  region  is  developing  in  the  extreme  north- 
eastern part  of  Georgia  which  is  of  particular  interest 
since  most  of  its  fruit  is  boxed.  Strictly  speaking,  the 
commercial  apple  district  in  Georgia  includes  but  two 
counties:  Rabun  and  Habersham,  in  the  extreme  north- 
eastern part  of  the  state.  Habersham  County  is  the  more 
important  of  the  two  and  has  experienced  a  period  of 
heavy  planting,  which  promises  a  greatly  increased  com- 
mercial output.  A  single  orchard  in  this  region  ships  as 
many  as  40,000  packed  boxes  of  apples  in  a  season,  which 
is  a  large  boxed  apple  crop  for  any  orchard  East  or  West, 
but  more  particularly  the  East  where  boxing  of  apples  is 
little  practiced.  H.  R.  State,  whose  orchard  is  one  of  the 
finest  and  most  profitable  for  its  size  in  Georgia,  had  much 
to  do  with  the  early  development  of  this  region.  The  most 
intensive  apple  plantings  are  about  the  towns  of  Cornelia, 
Demorest,  Tallulah  Falls  and  Clarksville. 

The  leading  variety  in  northeast  Georgia  is  the  Yates, 
which  seems  particularly  adapted  to  the  southern  climatic 
and  soil  conditions,  and  has  proved  very  popular  on  account 
of  its  heavy  annual  bearing  habit.  Other  varieties  of 
commercial  importance  are  Terry's  Winter,  Stayman 
Winesap,  Black  Twig,  Shockley  and  Wiuesap.  Delicious 


46  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

appears  prominently  in  newer  plantings.  The  Limber- 
twig  and  Nickajack  are  found  in  the  older  orchards,  but 
are  not  common  in  newer  ones.  A  very  large  percentage 
of  the  commercial  plantings  in  both  Rabun  and  Haber- 
sham  counties  have  been  made  since  1910. 

This  region  enjoys  close  proximity  to  the  southern 
markets,  and  for  that  reason  a  good  outlet  for  its  fruit  is 
assured.  Several  very  favorable  tracts  of  land  have  been 
set  to  apple  trees  in  northeast  Georgia  and  while  for  the 
most  part  these  orchards  are  promising  and  well  cared  for, 
it  is  unfortunate  that  some  unworthy  promotion  schemes 
have  been  planned  for  the  exploitation  rather  than  the 
development  of  the  apple  industry  in  this  region.  Most 
of  the  trees  not  yet  being  in  full  bearing,  it  is  difficult  to 
state  the  possible  output;  the  largest  crop  year  prior  to 
1919  included  over  100,000  bushels  of  boxed  apples,  as 
well  as  considerable  quantities  shipped  in  bulk.  A  greatly 
increased  production  may  be  expected. 

OHIO 
Southern  Ohio  Rome  Beauty  district. 

The  Southern  Ohio  Rome  Beauty  district  is  fairly  well- 
defined  and  centralized  and  has  come  into  prominence  since 
1910.  The  most  important  plantings  in  this  region  are 
in  Lawrence,  Gallia,  Meigs,  Athens  and  Washington  coun- 
ties, bordering  on  the  Ohio  River,  Lawrence  and  Washing- 
ton being  particularly  noteworthy.  Extensive  plantings 
occur  about  the  towns  of  Marietta,  Proctorville  and  Gal- 
lipolis. 

Apple  land  of  this  region  is  mountainous  in  character, 
and  the  orchards  are  very  often  isolated  and  more  or  less 


Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         47 

inaccessible.  On  account  of  the  rolling  character  of  the 
land,  orchard  operations  are  somewhat  difficult.  In  many 
cases  terraces  have  been  made  to  facilitate  the  operation 
of  power  spray  outfits.  It  is  common  to  find  the  orchards 
situated  on  the  tops  of  the  hills.  Trees  are  set  close 
together  and  do  not  attain  the  size  of  those  in  most  eastern 
regions.  Orchards  for  the  most  part  are  under  twenty- 
five  years  of  aga  A  lack  of  symmetry  is  noticeable  in 
some  commercial  plantings  on  account  of  missing  and 
varying  sized  trees.  Much  of  the  fruit  is  ferried  across 
the  Ohio  River  to  Huntington  and  Parkersburg  on  the 
West  Virginia  side.  These  cities,  together  with  Marietta 
in  Ohio,  are  the  principal  distribution  centers  for  the 
southern  Ohio  crop. 

With  the  exception  of  some  summer  varieties  which 
are  often  sold  in  bulk  in  nearby  markets,  most  of  the 
apples  are  barreled.  The  commercial  production  of  the 
region  has  reached  750,000  barrels  in  certain  years. 
Rome  Beauty,  the  leading  variety,  originated  in  southern 
Ohio  and  is  especially  adapted  to  this  section.  Ben  Davis, 
Grimes,  York  Imperial,  Oldenburg  and  Yellow  Trans- 
parent are  among  other  important  varieties  grown  com- 
mercially, of  these  Ben  Davis  and  Grimes  being  most 
widely  grown. 

The  average  annual  yields  in  this  region  are  rather 
small  and  unless  planting  proceeds  more  rapidly  than  for 
the  period  1915  to  1919,  no  greatly  increased  production 
can  be  expected. 

Minor  regions  in  Ohio. 

Columbiana  County  in  the  eastern  part  of  Ohio  is  a 
rather  important  apple  county  with  a  number  of  old 


48  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

orchards^  many  of  which  are  not  very  well  taken  care  of. 
The  leading  varieties  are  Baldwin,  Greening,  Ben  Davis, 
Hubbardston  and  Flushing  Spitzenburg,  the  latter  known 
commercially  only  in  this  locality. 

In  northern  Ohio  along  the  lake  belt,  particularly  in 
Ottawa,  Sandusky,  Huron  and  Erie  counties,  are  some- 
what limited  apple  plantings  consisting  largely  of  Baldwin, 
Rhode  Island  Greening,  Ben  Davis,  Northern  Spy,  Mcln- 
tosh,  and  Duchess. 

Farther  south  in  Ohio,  about  midway  between  the  south- 
ern Rome  Beauty  section  and  Lake  Erie  is  another  small 
apple  district  consisting  of  more  or  less  scattered  plant- 
ings about  Chillicothe.  Early  varieties  such  as  Yellow 
Transparent  figure  in  the  production  of  this  locality. 


KENTUCKY 


For  many  years  Kentucky  has  been  credited  with  a  very 
large  apple  production.  However,  this  is  for  the  most 
part  non-commercial  and  originates  almost  entirely  in  old 
neglected  orchards.  The  strictly  commercial  apple  plant- 
ings of  Kentucky  are  largely  in  Henderson  County  on  the 
Ohio  River  just  south  of  Evansville,  Indiana.  The  apple 
industry  has  not  attained  very  great  proportions  even 
here,  although  there  are  a  number  of  important  plantings 
and  the  orchards  are  generally  well  taken  care  of.  The 
leading  varieties  are  Winesap,  Stayman,  and  Ben  Davis, 
although  there  are  considerable  plantings  of  early  kinds. 
In  some  years  the  total  production  of  this  small  section 
reaches  40,000  barrels,  although  it  is  more  commonly 
under  30,000  barrels  of  strictly  commercial  apples.  The 
industry  is  being  fostered  in  this  section  and  further 
growth  seems  probable. 


Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         49 

MICHIGAN 

Commercial  apple-growing  has  been  an  important  enter- 
prise in  Michigan  for  forty  years  or  more.  While  apple 
plantings  are  not  confined  to  any  one  county  or  group  of 
Counties,  they  are  centralized  in  the  region  bordering  on 
the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Michigan  where  the  tempering 
influence  of  the  lake  favors  the  culture  of  many  deciduous 
fruits.  Some  of  the  soils  in  this  region  are  extremely 
sandy  and  are  more  particularly  adapted  to  peach-growing 
than  to  apple-culture.  A  large  portion  of  land,  however, 
is  a  sandy  clay  loam,  well  suited  to  apples. 

The  region  is  known  as  the  western  Michigan  fruit  belt 
and  extends  from  Berrien  County  on  the  south  to  Che- 
boygan  County  on  the  north.  The  most  important  apple 
counties  of  this  region  are  Van  Buren,  Allegan,  Kent,  Ber- 
rien, Oceana  and  Grand  Traverse.  Apple  plantings  are 
also  found  in  adjoining  counties  and  widely  scattered 
throughout  most  of  the  lower  peninsula  of  Michigan. 
Some  of  the  oldest  orchards  in  the  state  are  in  the  south 
and  southeastern  counties,  but  the  importance  of  this  re- 
gion has  given  way  to  the  newer  plantings,  particu- 
larly in  the  northern  end  of  the  western  Michigan  fruit 
belt. 

Production  for  western  Michigan  in  a  full  crop  year 
would  approximate  1,200,000  barrels  or  about  75  per  cent 
of  the  total  commercial  apple  production  of  the  state  of 
Michigan.  The  plantings  in  the  southern  part  of  the  belt 
suffered  severe  loss  from  San  Jose  scale,  while  those  in  the 
northern  part  are  much  younger  and  have  experienced  less 
injury  from  scale.  There  has  undoubtedly  been  a  decline 
in  the  production  in  Michigan  as  compared  with  1910. 


50  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

However,  with  the  young  orchards  just  coming  into  bear- 
ing and  with  better  care  being  given  to  the  older  trees,  it 
seems  highly  probable  that  this  loss  will  be  made  up  within 
the  next  few  years. 

The  leading  variety  grown  in  western  Michigan  is  the 
Baldwin,  which  comprises  over  one-fourth  of  the  total  pro- 
duction. Northern  Spy  and  Oldenburg  (Duchess)  each 
represents  about  14  per  cent  of  the,  total  production.  Ac- 
cording to  a  recent  survey,  varieties  next  in  order  of  im- 
portance are  Wagener,  Rhode  Island  Greening,  Wealthy, 
Ben  Davis,  and  Jonathan ;  the  last  named  being  prominent 
in  the  newer  orchards  of  Van  Buren,  Allegan  and  Berrien 
counties.  Ben  Davis  is  outstanding  in  the  older  orchards 
in  the  southernmost  counties.  Oldenburg  (Duchess)  and 
Wealthy  are  the  leading  summer  and  fall  varieties. 

Most  of  the  apples  of  this  region  are  packed  out  in 
barrels  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  crop  is  marketed  in 
Chicago,  Detroit,  Milwaukee,  and  other  large  cities  nearby. 
Producing  communities  situated  close  to  cities  market 
much  of  their  apple  crop  by  wagon  or  truck,  crates  and 
bushel  baskets  figuring  in  this  movement.  An  increased 
interest  in  the  apple  industry  in  western  Michigan  is 
evidenced  in  better  cultural  and  marketing  methods. 
Cooperative  associations  are  increasing  in  prominence  in 
many  localities. 

ILLINOIS 

Illinois  occupies  a  position  of  considerable  importance 
in  the  commercial  production  of  apples.  Soil  conditions 
generally  throughout  the  entire  state  are  very  well  adapted 
to  apple-growing,  and  nearly  every  county  has  a  consider- 
able acreage  of  trees. 


Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         51 

Strictly  commercial  areas  are  largely  confined  to  the 
southern  part  of  the  state.  They  may  be  segregated  into 
three  fairly  well-defined  regions:  (1)  The  extreme  south- 
ern portion;  (2)  the  Mississippi  Valley  region  centering 
about  Pike  and  Calhoun  counties;  (3)  the  southeastern 
part  of  the  state,  centering  in  Marion  County. 

Illinois  is  probably  under-estimated  from  a  commercial 
standpoint.  New  orchards  coming  into  bearing,  and  the 
renovation  of  old  ones  have  combined  in  making  this  the 
most  important  middle  western  apple  state.  Its  central 
location  and  proximity  to  market  serve  as  distinct 
advantages. 

Southern  Illinois  early  apple  region. 

The  extreme  southern  or  early  apple  section  in  Illinois 
may  be  defined  to  include  the  eleven  southernmost  coun- 
ties, but  only  Union  and  Johnson  are  of  great  commercial 
importance.  These  counties  probably  comprise  one  of  the 
most  important  early  apple-producing  sections  in  the 
United  States.  J.  C.  B.  Heaton  of  New  Burnside  is  one 
of  the  persons  largely  responsible  for  the  early  develop- 
ment of  this  industry.  Good  returns  for  apples  have 
stimulated  planting  and  an  increasing  production  may  be 
expected  from  this  region. 

The  principal  early  varieties  are  Yellow  Transparent, 
Duchess  of  Oldenburg,  Benoni,  Ked  June,  Chenango  and 
Sops  of  Wine.  Summer  varieties  comprise  nearly  three- 
fourths  of  the  total  production. 

Prominent  among  winter  varieties  are  Winesap,  Ben 
Davis,  Gano,  Jonathan,  and  Rome  Beauty.  Early  apples 
are  shipped  in  baskets  to  Chicago,  St.  Louis  And  other 
nearby  cities.  The  shipping  season  for  these  apples 


52  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

begins  the  last  week  in  June  and  is  usually  over  by 
August  first.  Winter  apples  are  sold  either  in  bulk  or 
in  barrels. 

In  some  ways  this  extreme  southern  portion  of  Illinois 
is  a  continuation  of  the  Ozark  uplift.  The  country  is 
somewhat  mountainous  and  unlike  northern  Illinois. 
The  soil  is  rather  thin  and  in  general  well  suited  for  the 
quick  early  growth  of  summer  varieties. 

Mississippi  Valley  region  of  Illinois. 

Adams,  Pike  and  Calhoun  counties  bordering  on  the 
Mississippi  River  are  responsible  for  the  heavy  produc- 
tion of  apples  in  western  Illinois.  Calhoun  leads  in  ton- 
nage shipped  and  a  large  part  of  its  output  goes  down  the 
Mississippi  River  by  boat. 

Conditions  are  dissimilar  to  those  in  the  early  apple 
region  in  the  southern  part  of  the  state.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  Calhoun  and  Pike  counties,  land  in  western 
Illinois  is  more  typical  of  the  prairie  states.  Calhoun 
County  apple  production  is  being  more  than  maintained 
by  new  plantings.  While  the  total  acreage  in  the  other 
counties  may  have  suffered  more  or  less  decrease  from 
1910  to  1918,  a  greater  interest  generally  is  exhibited 
among  the  leading  and  strictly  commercial  growers. 
Xearly  90  per  cent  of  the  acreage  in  this  section  is 
sprayed,  while  for  the  state  as  a  whole  it  is  doubtful 
whether  25  per  cent  of  the  acreage  is  sprayed. 

Leading  varieties  for  this  region  are  Ben  Davis,  Gano, 
Jonathan,  Grimes,  Willow  Twig  and  Winesap.  Ben 
Davis  and  Willow  Twig  predominate.  Practically  all 
commercial  apples  are  shipped  in  barrels. 


Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         63 

Southeastern  Illinois. 

The  Marion  County  district  in  southeast  Illinois  is 
sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  Flora  section,  since  Flora 
is  the  principal  shipping  point  and  one  of  the  important 
apple  centers  in  the  state.  Clay,  Richland,  Wayne,  Ef- 
fingham  and  Jasper  counties  are  also  included  in  this 
general  region.  Marion  County  was  at  one  time  credited 
as  leading  in  the  state  in  total  number  of  trees,  but  in 
recent  years  has  suffered  heavily  from  loss  in  trees. 
Practically  all  of  the  orchards  are  of  bearing  age  and 
very  few  trees  are  coming  into  bearing  to  replace  a  great 
percentage  which  passed  out  prior  to  1918.  Neglect,  old 
age,  and  infection  with  disease  and  insects,  notably  San 
Jose  scale,  have  exacted  a  heavy  toll.  Some  commercial 
growers  are  maintaining  their  orchards,  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  over  50  per  cent  of  the  total  acreage  is  sprayed 
at  all.  Yields  throughout  this  section  are  generally  low. 

Most  of  the  apples  are  sold  in  bulk;  the  remainder  in 
barrels.  Ben  Davis  is  the  leading  commercial  variety  and 
represents  over  half  of  the  total  production.  Jonathan, 
Winesap,  Rome  Beauty  and  Grimes  Golden  are  less  ex- 
tensively grown.  Of  the  summer  varieties  which  prob- 
ably represent  15  per  cent  of  the  total  production,  Benoni, 
Transparent,  Duchess  and  Wealthy  are  important.  Con- 
sidered as  a  whole,  Illinois  is  one  of  the  few  if  not  the 
only  middle  western  state  to  maintain  its  commercial 
production  in  the  face  of  a  general  decline  in  apple 
acreage  throughout  the  Middle  West  during  the  period 
1905  to  1918.  Of  its  three  commercial  apple  regions, 
two  are  showing  increased  production.  High  production 
is  possible  with  good  care  and  it  seems  probable  that 


54  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

Illinois  will  remain  the  leading  apple  state  of  the  Middle 
West  for  some  years  to  come. 

OZAEK    REGION  , 

The  Ozark  region  in  southern  Missouri  and  northwest- 
ern Arkansas  is  one  of  the  best  known  apple  sections  in 
the  United  States,  although  in  production  it  ranks  third 
among  the  four  important  Middle  West  districts. 

Essentially  it  is  a  Ben  Davis  region,  since  this  variety 
and  Gano  represent  over  65  per  cent  of  its  plantings,  and 
an  even  greater  proportion  of  its  production.  During  the 
decade  1890  to  1900,  the  entire  Ozark  region  experienced 
an  era  of  planting  unequalled  in  any  other  section  of  the 
country.  Prices  for  apples  in  the  late  eighties  stimulated 
and  encouraged  plantings,  and  the  good  yields  produced 
by  the  Ozark  orchards  then  in  bearing  afforded  excellent 
returns.  The  over-planting  which  occurred  in  the 
nineties  resolved  itself  into  somewhat  of  a  land-selling 
boom,  a  repetition  of  which  was  experienced  in  the  west- 
ern states  from  1900  to  1910.  Thousands  of  acres  of 
both  suitable  and  unsuitable  land  throughout  the  Ozarks 
have  been  set  to  trees,  but  of  this  great  acreage  only 
a  portion  has  been  cared  for  and  much  has  been  neglected 
and  abandoned.  The  Ozark  region  includes  some  of  the 
best  and  some  of  the  worst  orchards  in  the  country.  A 
period  of  late  spring  frosts  in  1900  to  1910,  when  a  num- 
ber of  consecutive  crops  were  lost  or  severely  damaged, 
contributed  to  the  lack  of  care  accorded  to  many  of  these 
trees. 

A  full  crop  for  the  entire  Ozark  region  would  probably 
not  exceed  1,600,000  barrels.  Arkansas'  contribution  to 
the  Ozark  apple  production  originates  almost  entirely  in 


Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         55 

two  counties,  Benton  and  Washington,  situated  in  the  ex- 
treme northwestern  part  of  the  state.  •  Madison,  Boone, 
Carroll  and  Crawford  counties  in  Arkansas  are  of  much 
less  importance.  Bentonville  and  Eogers  in  Benton 
County,  and  Springdale  and  Lincoln  in  Washington 
County  are  important  apple  centers  in  Arkansas. 

In  Missouri  the  commercial  apple  plantings  of  the 
Ozarks  continue  from  the  extreme  southwestern  part  of 
the  state,  along  the  Frisco  Railway  to  the  northeast  as 
far  as  Crawford  County.  Lawrence,  Greene,  followed  by 
Xewton,  Barry,  Webster  and  Howell,  are  the  most  impor- 
tant Missouri  counties  in  the  Ozark  region.  Marionville 
in  Lawrence  County  is  the  center  of  the  best  orchard  sec- 
tion in  southern  Missouri.  Orchards  in  the  vicinity  of 
this  town  illustrate  the  possibilities  to  be  attained  in  the 
Ozark  region. 

Probably  no  other  commercial  apple  district  in  the 
United  States  has  suffered  such  a  loss  in  trees  as  has 
the  Ozark  since  1910.  Conservative  estimates  place  the 
loss  at  more  than  50  per  cent,  much  of  which  has  been 
due  to  blister-canker.  With  such  conditions  prevailing, 
one  is  not  surprised  in  finding  two  very  divergent  types 
of  orchards.  There  are  the  old,  neglected  dying  orchards 
which  have  received  practically  no  care  while  in  some 
com  in  unities  a  revival  of  interest  has  brought  many  or- 
chards into  a  high  state  of  cultivation  and  profitable  bear- 
ing. In  such  counties  as  Texas  in  the  extreme  southern 
part  of  Missouri  are  orchards  which  look  almost  like  virgin 
forests,  branches  interlock,  trees  are  unsprayed,  unpruned 
and  uncared  for.  The  price  of  the  land  is  established  by 
its  value  for  general  crops,  less  the  cost  of  removing  the 
neglected  trees. 


56  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

Orchards  in  the  Ozark  region  vary  from  a  few  acres  to 
over  100  in  size,  many  of  them  being  from  30  to  100 
acres  in  extent.  Large  orchards  discourage  intensive  cul- 
tural methods  and  yields  tend  to  be  low  and  biennial  as 
trees  grow  older.  In  some  localities  there  is  a  progres- 
sive element  in  the  farming  population,  evidenced  by 
greater  attention  given  to  orchard  management.  Despite 
this  revival  of  interest  it  is  doubtful  whether  over  35 
per  cent  of  the  trees  in  the  Ozark  region  are  ever  sprayed, 
with  a  result  that  not  more  than  35  per  cent  of  the  total 
acreage  can  be  considered  as  strictly  commercial. 

As  stated  above,  Ben  Davis  and  Gano  represent  over  65 
per  cent  of  the  Ozark  production.  Jonathan,  Ingram, 
Maiden  Blush,  Grimes,  York  Imperial,  Collins  and  Ar- 
kansas Black  are  found  in  limited  plantings,  more  partic- 
ularly in  younger  acreage. 

More  than  half  of  the  production  from  this  region  is 
shipped  in  bulk,  only  the  better  grades  and  the  higher 
quality  varieties  being  shipped  in  barrels.  It  must  be  re- 
membered, however,  that  the  bulk  production  competes 
directly  with  the  barreled  stock  and  is  frequently  not  in- 
ferior in  quality. 

MISSOURI    RIVER    REGION     ( PLATE  III) 

Important  commercial  apple  plantings  of  Iowa, 
Nebraska,  Kansas  and  northern  Missouri  are  at  the  in- 
tersection of  these  four  states,  in  what  is  known  as  the 
Loess  Apple  Belt,  along  the  Missouri  River  in  north- 
western Missouri,  southwestern  Iowa,  southeastern 
Nebraska,  and  northeastern  Kansas.  This  section  has 
been  placed  in  a  district  by  itself,  since  the  important 


Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         57 

plantings  are  centralized  in  a  well  known  and  fairly  well 
defined  commercial  region. 

The  most  extensive  apple  plantings  in  the  Missouri 
River  region  are  in  Buchanan  County  in  the  vicinity  of 
St.  Joseph  in  northwestern  Missouri,  and  across  the  Mis- 
souri River  in  Doniphan  County  in  northeastern  Kansas. 
Iowa  and  Nebraska  plantings  are  of  less  importance 
although  the  Missouri  River  region  properly  includes 
small  corners  of  the  above  two  states.  In  Nebraska, 
Nemaha  and  Richardson  are  two  important  counties,  while 
across  the  Missouri  River,  Fremont,  Mills  and  Pottawa- 
tomie  counties  lead  in  the  commercial  production  for  Iowa. 

All  of  the  counties  named  border  on  the  Missouri-River 
and  with  several  other  counties  in  close  proximity,  com- 
prise a  fairly  compact  region  which  extends  into  four  states 
and  has  a  normal  production  of  nearly  2,000,000  barrels, 
which  is  greater  than  can  be  credited  to  the  Ozark  region. 
Ben  Davis  and  Gano  comprise  approximately  50  per  cent 
of  the  production  from  the  Missouri  River  district,  while 
Jonathan,  Winesap,  Arkansas  (Black  Twig)  and  Missouri 
Pippin  trees  have  been  extensively  planted,  particularly  in 
the  younger  orchards.  A  large  part  of  the  crop  moves  out 
in  bulk  as  is  the  case  in  the  Ozarks. 

Doniphan  County,  Kansas,  deserves  particular  mention 
as  one  of  the  most  important  and  highly  commercial 
counties  in  the  Middle  West.  Community  spirit  has 
stimulated  development  of  the  apple  industry  and  extensive 
plantings  are  found  in  the  vicinity  of  Wathena  and  Troy. 
A  high  percentage  of  the  yield  of  Doniphan  County  is 
barreled  and  more  of  the  trees  are  sprayed  than  in  prob- 
ably any  other  middle  western  apple  section.  Carload 
shipments  from  Doniphan  County  alone  have  amounted 


58  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

to  more  than  1,000  cars  for  a  single  season.  In  most 
instances  the  orchards  reflect  the  careful  attention  which 
always  insures  a  high  state  of  productiveness. 

Orchards  in  northwest  Missouri  are  older,  have  a  larger 
proportion  of  Ben  Davis  trees  and  in  the  main  have  re- 
ceived less  attention  than  those  on  the  Kansas  side. 
Buchanan  County  on  the  Missouri  River  ranks  among  the 
foremost,  if  not  the  foremost  apple  county  in  Missouri, 
and  yet  it  is  doubtful  whether  50  per  cent  of  the  trees 
are  sprayed.  While  Buchanan  County  has  been  singled 
out  on  account  of  its  central  location  and  relative  impor- 
tance, other  counties  in  northwest  Missouri,  including 
Kodaway,  Holt,  Jackson  and  Lafayette,  are  of  almost 
equal  importance. 

The  orchards  in  the  Missouri  River  region  are  more 
uniform  in  type  than  those  in  the  Ozarks  and  are,  as  a 
whole,  better  cared  for.  There  are  many  old  neglected 
orchards  in  northwest  Missouri,  but  these  are  fast  going 
out  and  the  production  from  strictly  commercial  orchards 
promises  to  dominate  the  output  of  the  region.  The  great- 
est increase  in  production  may  be  expected  from  the  young 
plantings  in  Kansas,  many  of  which  are  just  coming  into 
bearing. 

Outside  of  the  intensive  commercial  apple  regions,  the 
Middle  West  has  suffered  a  tremendous  loss  in  trees. 
However,  most  of  these  were  in  the  farm  orchards  and  it 
is  felt  that  such  regions  as  the  Missouri  River  or  loess 
soil  region  will  serve  to  maintain  the  commercial  produc- 
tion of  the  Middle  West  at  some  point  near  its  present  fig- 
ure. It  must  be  remembered  that  apple-growing  along  the 
Missouri  River  has  never  reached  the  intensity  of  many 
other  regions.  General  farming  with  here  and  there  a 


Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         59 

commercial  orchard  describes  the  general  farm  manage- 
ment scheme.  As  may  be  expected,  where  apple-growing 
is  only  one  of  a  number  of  enterprises,  the  general  care 
given  orchards  is  not  as  highly  intensive  as  in  some  sec- 
tions. Commercial  production  at  the  present  time  comes 
from  a  comparatively  few  well-cared-for  orchards. 

ARKANSAS  VALLEY  OF  KANSAS 

The  Arkansas  Kiver  Valley  in  south  central  Kansas 
is  a  distinct  region  which  requires  separate  treatment. 
Apple  plantings  in  this  valley  are  confined  largely  to  the 
sandy  loam  soil  along  the  river  and  are  in  Reno,  Sedg- 
wick,  Sumner  and  Cowley  counties.  Not  all  the  valley 
land  is  suited  to  apples  and  plantings  are  spotted.  Many 
of  the  orchards  are  irrigated  with  water  pumped  from 
wells  and  it  is  the  only  section  east  of  Colorado  in  which 
irrigation  is  practiced  in  the  growing  of  apples. 

Heavy  plantings  were  made  in  the  period  1907  to 
1910  and  this  region  will  be  of  increasing  importance  as 
trees  attain  full  bearing.  Winesap  and  Ben  Davis  are 
the  leading  varieties,  while  Jonathan,  Black  Twig,  Gano, 
York  Imperial,  Grimes  and  Rome  Beauty  are  of  less 
importance.  On  account  of  irrigation  and  other  farm 
management  practices  in  vogue,  the  Arkansas  Valley  has 
more  in  common  with  the  western  irrigated  districts  than 
with  the  typical  Middle  West  sections.  Furthermore, 
while  bulk  shipments  represent  a  large  portion  of  the 
crop,  a  considerable  percentage  of  the  output  is  marketed 
in  boxes.  No  barreling  is  done.  A  full  crop  from  this 
region  would  be  equivalent  to  about  250,000  barrels  at 
present.  Increased  production  may  be  expected. 


60  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 


COLORADO 

Colorado  stands  out  prominently  as  the  most  important 
apple  state  in  the  inter-mountain  district.  Practically  the 
entire  commercial  apple  crop  of  Colorado  is  produced  on 
the  western  slope  of  the  Rockies,  in  the  Grand  and  Gunni- 
son  valleys.  The  Grand  Valley,  extending  in  either 
direction  from  Grand  Junction,  in  Mesa  County,  for  a 
distance  of  about  twelve  miles,  is  the  most  highly  developed 
district  in  the  state.  This  valley  is  comparable  in  many 
ways  with  typical  northwest  apple  districts,  being  essen- 
tially boxed  apple-producing,  relying  on  irrigation,  and 
employing  northwest  methods  of  culture  and  farm  man- 
agement. 

Heaviest  planting  in  the  Grand  Valley  was  in  the 
period  1905-1910.  Practically  no  planting  occurred 
between  1912  and  1918.  'In  1918  there  were  about 
10,250  acres  of  apples,  of  which  7,500  were  over  ten 
years  of  age.  Alkali  outcroppings  in  certain  parts  of 
the  valley  caused  a  considerable  loss  in  acreage,  amounting 
to  probably  2,000  or  3,000  acres.  It  is  possible  that 
further  decreases  in  acreage  will  occur  and  yet  increased 
bearing  capacity  of  the  remaining  acreage  will  doubtless 
bring  about  increased  production.  The  principal  ship- 
ping stations  in  Mesa  County  are  Grand  Junction,  Fruita 
and  Clifton. 

The  Grand  Valley,  while  primarily  an  apple  section,  is 
not  exclusively  apple-producing.  Nearly  half  of  its  fruit 
acreage  consists  of  other  fruits  than  apples.  Peach  and 
pear  plantings,  with  smaller  acreages  of  cherries  and 
plums,  represent  in  the  aggregate  nearly  as  extensive 
acreage  as  the  apple.  In  the  vicinity  of  Palisades,  some 


Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         61 

ten  miles  from  Grand  Junction,  is  the  famous  Elberta 
peach  section,  which  has  shipped  1,000  cars  of  peaches 
in  a  single  season. 

The  Grand  Valley  did  not  escape  inflation.  In  fact, 
difficulties  with  irrigation  systems  and  outcropping  of 
alkali  have  brought  this  district  its  full  share  of  troubles. 
In  recent  years  the  codlin-moth  has  become  a  most  serious 
menace.  In  one  respect,  however,  notably  proximity  to 
markets,  Colorado  has  the  advantage  of  states  farther  west. 
It  is  particularly  adapted  to  the  growing  of  Jonathan 
apples,  which  comprise  nearly  a  third  of  its  production. 
Winesap,  Gano,  Ben  Davis,  Missouri  Pippin,  and  Rome 
Beauty  are  among  the  other  important  varieties.  The 
northwest  box  is  used  almost  exclusively  for  the  packed 
fruit,  although  bulk  shipments  figure  more  prominently  in 
Colorado  than  in  any  other  of  the  leading  western  apple 
states.  Cooperative  marketing  has  been  an  important 
factor  in  the  development  of  this  district. 

The  western  slope  of  Colorado  includes  two  other  apple 
districts,  one  in  Delta  and  the  other  in  Montrose  County, 
both  of  less  importance  than  the  Grand  Valley.  In  Delta 
County  the  apple  acreage  is  in  Gunnison  Valley,  with 
heaviest  plantings  at  Hotchkiss  and  Paonia.  The  Uncom- 
pahgre,  a  branch  of  the  Gunnison,  supplies  water  for  the 
orchard  plantings  in  Montrose  County  which  centers  about 
the  town  of  Montrose.  Both  of  these  districts  are  irri- 
gated and  conditions  conform  largely  to  those  given  for 
the  Grand  Valley.  Varieties  are  very  much  the  same, 
although  less  attention  is  given  to  other  fruits. 

On  the  eastern  slope,  the  Canyon  City  district  in  Fre- 
mont County,  along  the  Arkansas  Valley,  is  the  only  other 
apple  section  of  importance  in  the  state.  A  distinctive 


62  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

feature  of  Colorado  commercial  apple  plantings  is  that 
they  occur  at  an  elevation  of  4,000  to  5,000  feet  above  sea 
level. 

NEW  MEXICO 

The  Pecos  Valley  in  Chaves  County  is  the  coming 
apple  district  in  New  Mexico,  and  is  one  of  the  important 
sections  of  the  inter-mountain  states.  Over  half  of  New 
Mexico's  commercial  apple  crop  is  produced  in  Chaves 
County.  Heaviest  plantings  are  in  the  vicinity  of  Ros- 
well,  Greenfield,  Dexter  and  Hagerman.  The  latter  lies 
thirty  miles  south  of  Roswell  along  the  Pecos  River. 
County  assessor's  figures  indicate  about  4,500  acres  of 
trees  planted  before  1910  and  about  2,500  acres  planted 
1910  to  1919.  Little  planting  has  been  made  since  1912. 
Ben  Davis  and  Gano  are  the  principal  varieties,  with 
Missouri  Pippin,  Jonathan,  Winesap,  Black  Twig,  York 
Imperial  and  Arkansas  Black  among  the  less  important. 
The  northwest  box  is  the  common  package  for  this 
district,  although  bulk  shipments  are  important.  Less 
care  is  taken  in  grading  and  packing  the  boxed  fruit  than 
in  the  Northwest  and  much  of  the  crop  is  jumble  packed. 
The  Texas  farming  section  immediately  to  the  east  affords 
an  outlet  for  most  of  the  Pecos  apple  crop.  Jonathans 
come  on  the  market  earlier  than  in  most  sections,  and 
for  that  reason  Pecos  apples  have  priority  in  Texas 
markets.  A  marked  increase  in  production  may  be 
expected  from  this  section.  Heavy  frosts  are  not  infre- 
quent and  have  checked  the  normal  increase  in  production. 
While  600  or  700  cars  has  been  the  largest  production 
of  this  valley  to  date,  a  decided  increase  may  be  expected. 


Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         63 

The  only  distinct  apple  region  in  New  Mexico  outside 
of  the  Pecos  Valley  is  known  as  the  Farmington  district 
and  is  in  San  Juan  County  in  the  extreme  northwestern 
corner  of  the  state.  The  isolation  of  this  region,  com- 
bined with  poor  railroad  facilities,  has  checked  its  develop- 
ment. Principal  varieties  are  Gano,  Jonathan,  Rome 
Beauty  and  Winesap. 

UTAH 

Commercial  apple-growing  in  Utah  is  largely  confined 
to  irrigated  valleys  in  Boxelder,  Weber,  Davis,  Salt  Lake, 
and  Utah  counties,  which  lie  along  the  eastern  shores  of 
the  Great  Salt  Lake  and  Utah  Lake,  in  north  central 
Utah.  The  most  highly  commercial  districts  are  near 
Provo  in  Utah,  which  has  shipped  as  high  as  300  cars 
of  apples  in  a  year,  and  also  near  Tremonton  in  Box- 
elder  County.  Both  are  irrigated  and  market  their  com- 
mercial apples  largely  in  boxes,  although  bulk  shipments 
are  not  uncommon. 

Principal  varieties  for  the  Provo  district  are  Jonathan, 
Rome  Beauty,  Winesap,  and  Lawver;  for  the  Tremonton 
section  Ben  Davis,  Gano,  Jonathan  and  Winesap.  The 
apple  acreage  in  Utah  County  is  approximately  5,000 
acres,  of  which  two-thirds  was  planted  before  1910.  Of 
the  2,000  acres  in  apples  in  Boxelder  County,  most  of 
the  trees  were  planted  between  1906  and  1910.  Local 
consumption  and  nearby  mining  camps  largely  absorb  the 
production  of  Weber  and  Davis  counties.  Limited 
increase  in  commercial  production  may  be  expected  from 
this  state  as  the  acreage  increases  in  age.  It  is  improb- 
able that  commercial  shipments  will  exceed  1,000  cars 
within  the  next  few  years. 


64  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

MONTANA 

The  Bitter  Root  Valley,  extending  south  from  Missoula 
to  Hamilton,  Montana,  at  one  time  had  an  apple  acreage 
amounting  to  23,000  acres.  Most  of  this  acreage  was 
represented  in  large  projects  which  have  since  gone  into 
the  hands  of  receivers  and  are  being  neglected.  Probably 
the  greatest  loss  in  acreage  in  any  of  the  western  districts 
has  occurred  in  the  Bitter  Root  Valley.  The  Mclntosh 
apple  is  suited  to  this  region  but  trees  do  not  attain  large 
size  nor  is  growth  rapid.  Yields  are  smaller  than  in 
many  other  irrigated  sections.  The  slump  in  apple  pro- 
motion struck  the  Bitter  Root  Valley  at  an  inopportune 
time,  and  as  a  result  much  of  its  acreage  will  be  lost  or 
will  not  reach  full  commercial  bearing. 

WASHINGTON 

Interest  in  apple  production  west  of  the  Rockies  centers 
chiefly  in  the  Pacific  Northwest  and  particularly  in  the 
state  of  Washington.  In  1917  and  1019  Washington 
was  the  heaviest  commercial  apple-producing  state  in 
the  Union,  taking  precedence  even  over  New  York  which, 
on  account  of  exceedingly  light  crops,  dropped  into  second 
place  for  those  years.  Washington  must  be  credited  with 
over  one-half  of  the  total  boxed  apple  production  and  in 
an  average  year  now  ranks  first  in  quantity  of  commer- 
cial apples  produced. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  very  rapid  growth  and 
development  of  the  apple  industry  in  such  regions  as  the 
Yakima  and  Wenatchee  valleys,  which  have  recently  come 
into  prominence  and  are  largely  responsible  for  Washing- 
ton's heavy  production.  Although  very  similar  in  many 


Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         65 

respects,  these  two  districts  will  be  discussed  separately  on 
account  of  their  importance. 

Yakima  Valley. 

The  Yakima  district  is  located  in  the  south  central  part 
of  the  state  and  includes  approximately  40,000  acres  of 
apple  plantings  which  are  for  the  most  part  situated  in  the 
valley  land  lying  along  the  Yakima  River  and  its  tribu- 
tary streams. 

As  stated  in  the  history  of  the  Yakima  district,  the  first 
commercial  planting  was  made  in  this  region  about  1888 
and  as  late  as  1900  the  total  acreage  of  all  orchard  land 
was  not  more  than  3,000  acres,  and  the  total  production 
did  not  exceed  200  carloads  of  fruit.  Heaviest  planting 
occurred  after  1900  and  reached  a  climax  about  1908. 

Apple-growing  is  the  principal  industry  in  the  Yakima 
Valley  and,  as  might  be  expected,  intensive  methods  of  cul- 
tivation are  practiced,  every  effort  being  directed  at  the 
production  of  high  marketable  quality  fruit.  The  average 
fruit  farm  is  under  twenty  acres  and  is  devoted  almost 
exclusively  to  apples.  Peaches  and  pears  are  grown  in 
lesser  quantities  and  represent  approximately  12  per  cent 
of  the  total  fruit  acreage  of  the  county.  In  more  recent 
years  greater  diversification  has  been  emphasized,  with  the 
result  that  growers  with  larger  acreages  are  planting  sugar- 
beets,  potatoes  and  other  crops. 

The  productivity  and  ideal  climatic  conditions  of  the 
Yakima  Valley  attracted  an  unusually  high  type  of  settlers. 
The  community  spirit  and  social  conditions  are  unsur- 
passed by  those  in  any  other  apple  region.  Good  roads 
have  been  constructed  and  excellent  facilities  for  handling, 
packing  and  storing  the  fruit  are  available.  Probably 


66  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

nowhere  else  in  the  country  have  scientific  horticultural 
methods  been  more  assiduously  practiced  than  in  the 
Yakima  Valley. 

The  productivity  of  the  Yakima  orchards  is  very  high. 
Their  annual  yields  are  greater  than  those  in  any  other 
region  with  the  exception  of  the  Wenatehee  district. 

The  average  annual  rainfall  in  the  Yakima  Valley  is 
under  twelve  inches,  and  irrigation  is  necessary.  Millions 
of  dollars  have  been  expended  in  irrigation  projects 
designed  to  bring  water  from  the  mountain  streams  and 
fructify  the  otherwise  desert  land.  A  large  part  of  the 
acreage  is  watered  from  canals  operated  under  the  United 
States  Reclamation  Service,  although  private  projects  are 
also  found.  Water  rights  in  some  instances  have  cost  as 
high  as  $175.00  an  acre ;  the  average  has  been  much  lower, 
however.  Annual  maintenance  of  the  irrigation  ditches 
once  installed  often  represents  as  much  as  $4.00  an  acre. 
When  to  these  costs  are  added  the  high  price  for  raw  land 
and  the  expense  of  bringing  an  orchard  into  bearing  under 
the  most  intensive  care,  some  idea  may  be  obtained  of  the 
reason  for  high  valuation  of  western  irrigated  orchards. 
Two  thousand  dollars  an  acre  has  not  been  an  uncommon 
price  for  full  bearing  orchards.  In  some  instances 
unsuited  land  was  planted  and  the  district  suffered  from 
over-development  of  "  boom  "  projects. 

The  Yakima  Valley  is  under  a  severe  handicap  by  its 
distance  from  consuming  centers.  It  must  rely  on  large 
annual  yields  of  high  marketable  apples  for  its  survival. 
Production  has  been  rapidly  increasing  and  reached  11,500 
cars  in  1919.  Less  than  25  per  cent  of  the  acreage  was 
over  ten  years  of  age  in  1918  and  an  increased  production 
may  be  expected  from  this  region  in  the  next  few  years. 


Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         67 

Winesap  is  the  leading  variety  and  in  some  years  repre- 
sents as  high  as  one-half  of  the  total  production.  Heavy 
plantings  have  been  made  of  Jonathan,  Ben  Davis,  Rome 
Beauty,  Esopus  (Spitzenburg),  Yellow  Newtown,  De- 
licious, Stayman,  Gano  and  lesser  plantings  of  Arkansas 
(Black  Twig),  Baldwin,  Wagener,  Grimes  Golden  and 
Arkansas  Black.  Probably  in  no  other  region  is  there  a 
larger  list  of  extensively  grown  varieties  and  yet  most  of 
those  named  are  good  commercial  kinds  well  adapted  to  the 
region. 

Wenatchee  North  Central  Washington  district  (Plate  /F). 

The  Wenatchee  Valley  is  included  in  what  is  commonly 
spoken  of  as  the  North  Central  Washington  fruit  region. 
Although  less  than  fifty  miles  apart,  the  Yakima  and 
Wenatchee  valleys  are  separated  by  a  range  of  mountains 
and  there  are  no  rail  connections  except  by  a  very  circuit- 
ous route.  These  two  very  important  fruit  regions  have 
grown  up  almost  simultaneously  under  very  similar  condi- 
tions, vieing  with  each  other  in  the  production  of  high 
marketable  quality  apples. 

The  Wenatchee  \7alley  proper  is  in  Chelan  County, 
although  in  speaking  of  the  North  Central  Washington 
district  one  commonly  includes  apple  plantings  along  the 
Columbia  River  and  its  tributaries,  extending  northward 
from  Wenatchee  into  Okanogan  County.  Annual  rainfall 
varies  from  eight  to  fifteen  inches  and  irrigation  is  neces- 
sary. 

The  principal  producing  area  of  this  region  lies  in  the 
Wenatchee  Valley  in  the  vicinity  of  the  towns  of  Wenat- 
chee, Monitor  and  Cashmere,  and  extends  as  far  up  the 
valley  as  Leavenworth,  the  latter  being  situated  at  the 


68  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

base  of  the  Cascades.  A  very  intensive  region  is  in  a 
semi-circular  area  about  the  town  of  Wenatchee.  There 
is  a  considerable  variation  of  altitude  throughout  the  valley, 
but  most  of  the  orchards  are  at  an  elevation  of  700  to  1,000 
feet. 

The  Wenatchee  Valley  is  even  more  intensive  and  com- 
pact than  the  Yakima  Valley.  Its  development  dates  back 
to  about  1900,  when  the  first  large  irrigation  canal,  later 
known  as  the  Wenatchee  Highline  Canal,  was  begun.  The 
planting  of  fruit-trees  was  more  or  less  correlated  with  the 
development  of  irrigation.  The  total  apple  acreage  in 
North  Central  Washington,  including  the  Wenatchee  Val- 
ley and  the  upper  Columbia,  is  approximately  40,000 
acres.  Some  of  this  acreage  is  in  Okanogan,  Douglas  and 
Grant  counties  adjoining  Chelan  County  on  the  east. 
The  shipments  reached  a  maximum  in  1919—1920  of 
12,300  cars  of  756  boxes  each. 

The  farms  in  general  throughout  the  Wenatchee  region 
are  small,  most  of  them  averaging  not  over  fifteen  acres 
and  many  even  less.  Some  large  projects  embrace  as 
many  as  several  hundred  acres  each,  but  the  region  is  not 
adapted  to  the  extensive  type  of  agriculture.  The  two 
predominating  limiting  factors  are  the  high  price  of  land 
and  the  small  area  of  irrigable  land.  Peaches  and  pears 
are  grown  in  limited  quantities  and  there  is  also  a  consider- 
able acreage  of  alfalfa,  but  most  of  the  latter  occurs  as  an 
inter-  or  shade  crop  in  the  apple  orchards. 

An  intensive  survey  made  by  the  authors  in  the  Wenat- 
chee Valley  indicated  an  average  investment  to  the  acre 
of  nearly  $2,000.  It  may  be  seen  that  with  such  a  high 
valuation  only  a  highly  specialized  crop  like  apples  can 
ever  be  made  to  bring  a  sufficient  return  on  the  invest- 


Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         69 

ment.  It  seems,  then,  that  the  Wenatchee  Valley  offers 
less  opportunity  for  diversification  than  almost  any  other 
region  in  the  United  States.  At  the  same  time  it  is  unsur- 
passed in  productivity  and  high  marketable  quality  of  its 
fruit.  The  surveys  indicate  that  of  all  the  apple  regions 
of  this  country  the  highest  annual  yields  and  the  highest 
percentage  of  extra  fancy  and  fancy  fruit  were  produced 
in  the  Wenatchee  Valley.  Like  the  Yakima  Valley,  the 
Wenatchee  district  must  rely  on  heavy  yields  and  high 
marketable  quality  fruit  to  overcome  a  severe  handicap  of 
extreme  distance  from  markets.  The  possibility  for 
cooperative  movement  among  growers  is  explained  by  the 
intensity  of  plantings  and  by  excellent  community  spirit. 

As  in  Yakima,  the  most  intensive  and  careful  orchard 
practices  are  in  use.  The  Wenatchee  region  is  practically 
free  from  fungus  trouble,  and  with  the  exception  of  the 
codlin-moth,  which  is  a  decided  menace,  is  infested  with 
but  few  serious  insect  pests.  In  their  early  development, 
the  Wenatchee  orchards  were  almost  without  exception  com- 
mitted to  a  practice  of  entire  clean  cultivation,  without 
either  shade  or  cover-crops.  More  recently,  as  in  all  irri- 
gated districts,  the  use  of  leguminous  shade  crops  has 
become  common. 

The  highest  production  from  the  Wenatchee  North  Cen- 
tral Washington  district  prior  to  1919  was  the  crop  of  1917 
which  amounted  to  approximately  8,500  cars  of  756  boxes 
each.  At  least  75  per  cent  of  the  acreage  was  under  ten 
years  of  age  in  1918  and  an  increased  production  from 
this  region  may  be  expected.  Winesap,  Jonathan,  De- 
licious, Spitzenburg,  Stayman,  Rome  and  Yellow  New- 
Town  are  listed  in  the  order  of  their  importance. 


70  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

Spokane  district. 

The  third  most  important  apple  district  in  Washington 
is  in  Spokane  County  and  is  commonly  spoken  of  as  the 
Spokane  apple  district.  Acreage  of  this  county  at  one 
time  was  nearly  as  great  as  that  in  Yakima,  but  the  pro- 
duction has  never  approached  that  of  the  latter.  The 
region  was  developed  after  the  Yakima  and  Wenatchee  dis- 
tricts and  considerable  acreage  of  unsuited  land  was  set  in 
trees.  The  most  intensive  plantings  are  in  the  Spokane 
Valley  west  of  Spokane,  extending  along  the  river  for  a 
distance  of  twenty-five  miles  to  the  east.  Production 
from  the  county  reached  about  1,400  cars/  in  1920.  A  con- 
siderable increase  in  production  may  be  expected,  although 
it  seems  probable  that  much  of  the  acreage  originally  set 
to  trees,  and  particularly  the  trees  on  non-irrigated  land, 
will  never  attain  full  commercial  bearing.  The  principal 
varieties  are  Jonathan,  Rome  Beauty  and  Wagener. 

Walla  Walla  district. 

The  Walla  Walla  district  is  the  fourth  important  section 
in  Washington.  It  is  largely  an  upland  region  of  rolling 
hills.  Irrigation  is  not  generally  practiced.  The  produc- 
tion has  reached  1,000  cars  in  a  single  season.  Much  of 
the  acreage  is  not  yet  in  full  bearing  and  increasingly 
large  crops  may  be  anticipated. 

OREGON  (PLATES  in,  v) 
Hood  River  Valley. 

Oregon  apples  have  come  into  prominence  largely 
through  the  production  from  the  very  well  known  Hood 


Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         71 

River  Valley,  which  stands  out  pre-eminently  as  the  prin- 
cipal apple-producing  region  in  Oregon,  and  which  must 
be  credited  with  approximately  half  of  the  state's  com- 
mercial production.  In  many  ways  the  Hood  River  Val- 
ley is  not  comparable  with  the  other  western  irrigated 
regions.  Instead  of  a  dry  arid  climate,  it  has  a  rainfall 
equaling  that  of  New  York.  The  trees  have  a  different 
habit  of  growth  and  lower  average  yields  are  obtained 
than  in  most  other  apple  sections  of  the  Northwest. 
Lighter  yields  are  very  largely  accounted  for  by  the  fact 
that  Yellow  Newtown  and  Esopus  (Spitzenburg),  well 
known  as  high  quality  but  rather  shy  bearing  varieties, 
predominate. 

The  development  of  the  Hood  River  Valley  occurred 
simultaneously  with,  or  slightly  in  advance  of,  that  of  the 
Wenatchee  and  Yakima  valleys.  The  Hood  River  district 
lies  almost  entirely  in  Hood  River  County,  the  latter  being 
situated  on  the  Columbia  River  at  the  northern  boundary 
of  the  state.  The  valley  is  narrow,  varying  from  two  to 
eight  miles  in  width,  and  the  cultivated  area  extends  from 
the  town  of  Hood  River,  south  to  Parkdale  in  the  upper 
valley,  a  distance  of  about  twenty-four  miles.  This  region 
is  divided  into  what  are  known  locally  as  the  lower,  middle 
and  upper  valleys.  The  lower  valley  contains  the  most 
bearing  fruit  and  the  greater  percentage  of  tillable  land. 

The  Hood  River,  a  fast  flowing  mountain  stream  rising 
at  the  foot  of  Mount  Hood,  divides  the  valley  into  the  east 
and  west  sides.  The  orchards  are  located  on  the  benches 
and  rolling  land  on  either  side.  For  the  most  part,  the 
orchards  are  small  and  receive  the  same  cultural  treatment 
which  prevails  in  the  Wenatchee  and  Yakima  districts. 
Irrigation,  although  not  always  necessary,  has  been  found 


72  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

advisable  in  the  growing  of  cover-crops  and  is  common 
among  most  of  the  orchards. 

Many  persons  were  attracted  by  the  unusual  scenic 
beauty  of  this  little  valley,  which  lies  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Hood.  Unfortunately  Hood  River  did  not  escape  the 
effects  of  inflated  land  values  and  growers  experienced  a 
period  of  depression  for  a  few  years  prior  to  1917.  The 
region  has  become  widely  advertised  and  known,  although 
its  production  has  never  exceeded  2,200,000  boxes  and 
will  never  approach  in  quantity  that  of  the  Yakima  and 
Wenatchee  valleys.  Cooperative  marketing  has  featured 
in  the  development  of  this  region  and  the  output  of  the 
valley  commands  unusually  high  prices.  As  stated  above, 
the  production  in  this  region  is  largely  confined  to  two 
varieties,  the  Yellow  Newtown  and  the  Esopus  (Spitzen- 
burg). 

Rogue  River  Valley. 

The  Rogue  River  Valley,  although  now  widely  known 
as  a  pear  section,  is  the  second  largest  apple-producing 
region  in  Oregon.  The  valley  is  somewhat  highly  special- 
ized, although  its  development  has  been  slower  than  in  most 
other  apple  districts  in  the  Northwest.  Land  values  at 
one  time  were  very  high  and  a  large  number  of  easterners 
were  attracted  to  the  valley.  A  period  of  drought  years, 
during  which  the  annual  rainfall  dropped  from  the  normal 
twenty-two  inches  to  as  low  as  twelve  inches,  caused  great 
loss  and  emphasized  the  need  of  irrigation,  which  is  now 
practiced  in  about  a  third  of  the  orchards  and  is  being 
extended  to  the  others. 

The  fruit  acreage  lies  almost  wholly  in  Jackson  County 
and  plantings  are  centralized  in  Stewart  Creek  and  Rogue 


Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         73 

River  valleys,  about  the  towns  of  Medford,  Ashland,  Tal- 
ent and  Phoenix.  Of  the  approximate  acreage  of  23,000 
acres  of  commercial  fruit  plantings,  about  13,000  acres 
are  in  pears  and  10,000  in  apple  trees.  In  the  apple  acre- 
age, Yellow  Newtowns,  Esopus  (Spitzenburg),  Jonathan, 
and  Ben  Davis  are  the  predominating  varieties.  Prob- 
ably 75  per  cent  of  the  present  production  consists  of 
Yellow  Newtowns.  As  in  other  northwest  districts,  the 
summer  apple  is  an  almost  negligible  factor.  Approx- 
imately half  of  the  apple  acreage  of  this  region  was  ten 
years  of  age  or  over  in  1918. 

The  prevalence  of  spring  frost-injury  led  to  a  rather 
wide  use  of  oil-heaters,  particularly  in  the  orchards  on  the 
floor  of  the  valley.  Foothill  orchards  are  less  subject  to 
frost  and  as  a  rule  are  not  smudged.  Despite  the  dry 
atmosphere,  the  apple-scab  is  more  or  less  prevalent  and 
requires  summer  spraying.  Fire-blight,  particularly 
among  the  pear  trees  and  Esopus  (Spitzenburg)  apple 
trees,  caused  great  loss  in  the  years  1913-1915. 

The  droughts  between  1914  and  1918  checked  the  normal 
increase  in  production.  The  largest  crop  of  apples  prior 
to  1919  was  harvested  in  1917  and  consisted  of  about  700 
cars.  Practically  all  of  the  marketable  apples  are  packed 
out  in  boxes. 

Other  apple  districts  in  Oregon. 

In  addition  to  the  apple  plantings  in  the  Hood  and 
Rogue  River  valleys  are  some  very  promising  apple 
orchards  in  the  Willamette  Valley  and  Roseburg  section; 
and  also  in  the  Milton-Freewater  district  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  the  state.  Commercial  projects  are  also 
found  in  Wasco  County. 


74  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

IDAHO* 

The  following  four  fairly  well  defined,  yet  more  or  less 
isolated,  apple  sections  are  found  in  Idaho:  Payette  Val- 
ley, Boise  Valley,  Lewiston  district  and  Twin  Falls  dis- 
trict. Idaho  was  somewhat  behind  Oregon  and  Washing- 
ton in  the  time  of  the  development  of  its  fruit  industry 
and  probably  has  a  greater  proportion  of  young  trees 
than  either  of  the  other  two.  The  commercial  production 
of  Idaho  exceeded  3,600  cars  in  1919. 

Payette  district. 

The  apple  acreage  of  the  Payette  district  is  largely  in 
the  Payette  Valley,  with  extensive  plantings  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Fruitland,  Payette,  Weiser  and  New  Plymouth. 
This  district  represents  the  heaviest  producing  area  in  the 
state.  Its  production  has  exceeded  2,000  cars  in  a  single 
season  and  an  even  greater  output  is  promised  on  account 
of  the  new  acreages  just  coming  into  bearing. 

As  in  all  of  Idaho's  plantings,  the  Jonathan  grows  to 
perfection  and  is  the  predominating  variety.  Other 
important  varieties  of  the  Payette  are  Eome  Beauty,  Gano, 
Ben  Davis,  and  Winesap.  The  northwest  box  system  of 
packing  and  general  orchard  management  is  used  through- 
out this  region,  although  there  is  not  the  intensity  of  cul- 
tural methods,  nor  quite  the  high  state  of  specialization, 
as  in  the  Yakima  and  Wenatchee  districts.  Severe  frost- 
injury  has  destroyed  the  crop  in  certain  years  and  frost 
liability  has  somewhat  deterred  the  development  of  the 
region.  The  Payette  district  was  known  as  a  hay  and 
stock  raising  country  long  before  an  impetus  was  given  to 
its  apple  industry.  Although  the  orchards  are  small,  con- 


Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         75 

siderable   fertile   land   implanted   to  trees   offers    oppor- 
tunity for  diversification. 

Boise  Valley. 

Much  the  same  conditions  obtain  in  the  Boise  Valley 
as  in  the  Payette  district,  these  two  sections  being  only 
a  few  miles  apart  and  having  been  developed  under  much 
the  same  conditions.  Plantings  in  the  Boise  Valley  are 
much  more  limited  than  in  the  Payette  district. 

Twin  Falls. 

In  the  extreme  southern  part  of  Idaho  and  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Twin  Falls  is  an  irrigated  region  which  has  intensive 
apple  plantings,  amounting  to  4,000  or  5,000  acres,  most 
of  which  have  not  attained  full  bearing  and  considerable 
of  which  have  been  taken  out  to  provide  for  more  general 
farming.  The  production  in  1919  reached  approximately 
500  cars  and  the  output  of  the  region  may  be  expected 
to  increase.  Varieties  and  general  orchard  conditions 
are  much  the  same  as  in  the  Payette  district. 

Lewiston  section. 

Kear  Lewiston  in  Xez  Perce  County,  an  irrigated  pro- 
ject of  6,000  acres  was  planted  largely  in  the  period  1906 
to  1910.  This  was  developed  by  a  single  company  and 
was  sold  out  in  small  tracts  to  investors  who  in  some 
instances  have  taken  up  their  residence  and  are  develop- 
ing the  subdivisions.  Very  few  orchards  have  reached 
full  bearing,  and  although  they  were  planted  and  have 
been  cared  for  on  a  strictly  commercial  basis,  the  future 
of  the  region  can  not  be  definitely  determined  at  this  time. 


76  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

CALIFORNIA 

Watsonville  district. 

The  Pajaro  Valley,  centering  about  Watsonville,  is  the 
oldest  and  from  the  standpoint  of  total  past  production, 
one  of  the  most  important  of  the  western  apple  regions. 
In  later  years,  however,  both  the  Yakima  and  Wenatchee 
valleys  of  Washington  have  far  outstripped  it  in  produc- 
tion. With  the  possible  exception  of  the  Wenatchee  Val- 
ley, it  is  doubtful  whether  any  apple  region  in  the  country 
exceeds  the  Watsonville  district  for  intensity  of  planting. 
The  most  important  orchards  are  included  in  an  area  of 
five  by  ten  miles  about  the  town  of  Watsonville.  This 
limited  area  is  responsible  for  nearly  two-thirds  of  Cal- 
ifornia's commercial  apple  crop,  and  has  a  production 
record  of  almost  3,300,000  boxes  of  apples  for  a  single 
season. 

Apple  plantings  were  known  to  have  been  made  in 
the  Pajaro  Valley  in  the  early  fifties.  Commercial  or- 
chards existed  as  early  as  1870.  The  period  of  greatest 
commercial  growth  occurred  in  the  decade  1890-1900. 
Crop  failures  are  uncommon  in  the  Pajaro  and  this  valley 
has  a  very  high  record  for  annual  production.  Irriga- 
tion is  little  practiced,  the  normal  annual  rainfall  of 
forty  inches  being  sufficient  to  insure  heavy  annual  pro- 
duction. Yellow  Xewtown  is  the  leading  variety  and 
comprises  over  50  per  cent  of  the  regional  production. 
Yellow  Bellflower  is  next  in  importance  while  both  Ked 
and  White  Winter  Pearmain,  Langford  Seedling  and 
Missouri  Pippin  are  grown  in  limited  quantities.  Red 
varieties,  however,  are  not  adapted  to  this  region. 

A  most  peculiar  system  of  handling  the  crop  prevails 


Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         77 

in  the  Watsonville  section.  A  large  colony  of  Slavonians 
has  for  many  years  been  closely  identified  with  the  indus- 
try in  the  buying  and  packing  of  apples.  A  large  per- 
centage of  the  growers  sell  the  fruit  on  the  trees  for  a  lump 
sum  to  these  Slavonian  packers,  who  care  for  the  orchard, 
do  such  spraying,  thinning  and  propping  as  is  practiced, 
later  harvesting  and  packing  the  fruit.  Seasonal  contracts 
are  very  often  made  at  blooming  time,  although  some 
growers  contract  their  crops  for  a  period  of  several  years 
in  advance.  The  speculative  side  of  such  transactions 
need  not  be  emphasized.  Disastrous  crop  failures  may 
mean  ruin  for  the  buyer,  while  high  prices  very  often 
mean  large  profits.  The  Slavonians  assume  the  growers' 
risk  and  naturally  require  a  margin  commensurate  with 
the  risk. 

Despite  many  natural  advantages,  the  Watsonville  dis- 
trict has  been  slow  to  adopt  high  standards  for  the  grade 
and  pack  of  its  fruit,  and  as  a  result  it  has  not  kept  pace 
with  northwest  production  in  this  respect.  Cooperative 
handling  and  marketing  has  been  developed  to  a  limited 
extent  among  the  progressive  growers.  Until  recently, 
the  California  box  (9l/2  x  11  x  22),  a  slightly  larger  and 
longer  box  than  that  used  in  the  Northwest,  has  been  in 
most  common  use,  as  has  also  the  straight  line  pack  in- 
stead of  the  northwest  diagonal  pack.  More  recently  a 
state  law  has  sought  to  make  the  northwest  box  the  stand- 
ard. Export  trade  normally  absorbs  a  large  portion  of 
the  Yellow  Newtown  production.  The  Yellow  Bell- 
flowers  are  largely  sold  in  domestic  markets,  many  in 
California. 


78  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

Sevastopol  apple  district. 

The  Sebastopol  apple  district  is  considerably  less 
important  than  the  Pajaro  Valley  or  Watson ville  section 
and  yet  it  is  the  second  region  in  California.  The  most 
extensive  plantings  are  in  the  vicinity  of  Sebastopol 
which  is  situated  in  Sonoma  County  about  sixty  miles 
north  of  San  Francisco.  This  is  the  only  distinctive  early 
apple  section  in  the  West  and  has  come  to  prominence 
largely  through  its  production  of  Gravensteins. 

In  normal  years  the  shipments  of  fresh  apples  from 
this  region  seldom  have  exceeded  600  cars  and  most  of 
these  have  been  Gravensteins.  The  apple  plantings  are 
much  more  recent  than  those  near  Watsonville  and  an 
increased  production  may  be  expected.  Sebastopol 
deserves  mention  as  a  dried  apple  center.  In  normal 
years  more  of  its  crop  is  dried  than  is  shipped  fresh.  This 
section  has  produced  as  high  as  2,000  tons  of  dried  apples 
in  a  season.  Among  the  winter  varieties,  Esopus  (Spitz- 
enburg),  Baldwin,  Yellow  Newtown,  Yellow  Bellflower, 
and  Rome  Beauty  are  more  or  less  prominent.  A  large 
part  of  the  production  of  the  latter  varieties  is  dried. 

There  is  little  similarity  between  the  type  and  charac- 
ter of  the  Sebastopol  orchards  and  those  of  the  more 
important  Watsonville  section.  In  the  former,  the  or- 
chards conform  more  to  the  mountain  type  and  are  of  al- 
most entirely  different  varieties  than  at  Watsonville. 
Irrigation  is  not  practiced. 

Yucaipa  section. 

A  third  apple  region  has  more  recently  developed  in 
California  in  San  Bernardino  and  Riverside  counties  in 


y 
Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         79 

the  extreme  southern  part  of  the  state.  The  Yucaipa  sec- 
tion, as  it  is  known,  consists  largely  of  young  more  or  less 
mountain  plantings  which,  although  limited  in  extent,  are 
somewhat  intensively  cared  for  and  will  doubtless  be 
responsible  for  an  increasingly  large  production.  Already 
this  region  has  shipped  as  many  as  200,000  boxes  of  apples 
in  a  season. 

TABLE  III. —  AVERAGE  PRODUCTION  OF  THE  LEADING  APPLE  DIS- 
TRICTS OF  THE  WEST 

Average 

Districts.  Production 

1916-1919. 
Packed  Boxes. 

Wenatchee,    Wash 6,686,675 

Yakima,  Wash 6,015,250 

Watsonville,  Cal 2,787,500 

South    Idaho     : },894,750 

Western  slope  Colorado   1,492,500 

Hood   River,   Ore 1,625,000 

WISCONSIN 

Apples  are  grown  largely  in  home  orchards,  most  of 
which  are  distributed  throughout  the  southeastern  part  of 
the  state  and  particularly  in  the  counties  bordering  Lake 
Michigan.  Taking  the  state  as  a  whole,  Fameuse,  Mcln- 
tosh,  Oldenburg,  Northwestern  Greening,  and  Wealthy  are 
the  principal  varieties.  Harvesting  period  is  somewhat 
later  there  than  in  some  states. 

There  are  three  limited  commercial  areas  in  the  state : 
(1)  The  Sturgeon  Bay  district  in  Door  County  on  Lake 
Michigan,  in  which  heaviest  plantings  are  about  Sturgeon 
Bay,  Egg  Harbor,  and  Ephraim  on  the  west  shore  of  the 
peninsula;  (2)  limited  plantings,  chiefly  about  Richland 
Center  in  Richland  County,  Gays  Mills  in  Crawford 
County  and  Baraboo  in  Sauk  County  in  the  southwestern 


80  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

part  of  the  state;  (3)  Eau  Claire  district  in  which  limited 
plantings  are  found  in  Eau  Claire,  Chippewa,  and  Trem- 
pealeau  counties.  Duchess  of  Oldenburg  and  Wealthy 
are  the  leading  varieties. 

MINNESOTA 

Minnesota  is  even  less  important  commercially  than 
Wisconsin,  although  there  are  many  scattering  home 
orchards  through  the  south  and  particularly  southeastern 
part  of  the  state.  In  the  vicinity  of  Late  Minnetonka, 
Long  Lake  and  Howard  Lake,  in  Hennepin,  Meeker  and 
Wright  counties,  are  commercial  plantings  in  which 
Wealthy,  Patten's  Greening,  Hibernal,  and  the  following 
crabs  are  grown:  Florence,  Whitney,  and  Lyman's  Pro- 
lific. Some  of  these  apples  are  jumble  packed  in  boxes 
and  others  shipped  in  baskets.  Another  very  limited  com- 
mercial area  is  in  Houston  and  Winona  counties,  in  the 
extreme  southeastern  part  of  the  state.  In  addition  to 
the  varieties  named  above,  Wealthy,  Northwestern  Green- 
ing, and  Wolf  River  are  common  for  Minnesota.  Crabs 
are  widely  grown. 

EABLY   APPLE   REGIONS 

Only  a  few  counties  in  the  United  States  produce  early 
apples  in  quantity  for  commercial  purposes.  Early 
apples  are  grown  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  nearly  all 
important  apple  regions  and  in  nearly  every  farm  orchard. 
By  far  the  larger  part  of  this  production,  however,  is  not 
strictly  commercial,  but  is  used  only  for  local  or  home 
consumption.  In  this  discussion  particular  attention  will 
be  given  to  the  few  specialized  early  apple  regions. 


Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         81 

New  York  and  New  England. 

Although  New  York  is  not  commonly  considered  a  spe- 
cialized early  apple  region,  there  is  a  heavy  production  of 
such  varieties  as  Oldenburg  (Duchess),  Twenty  Ounce 
and  Wealthy  in  the  western  part  of  the  state.  Alexander 
and  Yellow  Transparent  are  grown  in  more  limited  quan- 
tities. The  plantings  of  Oldenburg  (Duchess)  and 
Wealthy  are  found  particularly  in  Niagara  County  while 
Twenty  Ounce  is  grown  extensively  in  Monroe  County, 
about  the  town  of  Hilton.  Scattered  plantings  of 
Wealthy,  Gravenstein,  Oldenburg  (Duchess),  and  Will- 
iams Early  Red  are  grown  in  the  Hudson  Valley,  particu- 
larly near  the  Hudson  River  in  Dutchess,  Columbia, 
Ulster,  and  Greene  counties.  Very  few  apples  are  moved 
out  of  New  York  prior  to  August  1st.  With  a  good 
crop,  however,  New  York  has  shipped  as  many  as 
300,000  barrels  of  commercial  early  apples  prior  to 
September  15th,  most  of  which  originated  in  western 
New  York. 

Early  apple  varieties  for  New  England  are  largely  the 
same  as  those  given  for  the  Hudson  Valley,  the  most 
extensive  plantings  being  in  Worcester,  Middlesex  and 
Franklin  counties  of  Massachusetts. 

New  Jersey. 

New  Jersey,  and  particularly  Monmouth  County,  has 
long  been  known  as  one  of  the  most  intensive  early  apple 
regions.  Important  early  varieties  for  Monmouth  County 
are  English  Codling,  Oldenburg  (Duchess),  Wealthy,  Gra- 
venstein, Red  Astrachan  and  Twenty  Ounce.  New  Jersey 
has  still  another  intensive  and  even  more  important  early 


82  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

apple  district  which  includes  the  counties  of  Burlington, 
Camden,  Gloucester  and  Cumberland  in  the  southwestern 
part  of  the  state.  The  most  intensive  plantings  of  this  re- 
gion are  about  the  towns  of  Moorestown,  Riverton  and 
Burlington,  not  far  from  Philadelphia.  The  leading  va- 
rieties are  Starr,  Williams  Early  Red,  Yellow  Transparent 
and  Wealthy,  with  lesser  quantities  of  Red  Astrachan, 
Oldenburg  (Duchess),  and  Early  Ripe. 

New  Jersey  as  a  whole  is  one  of  the  leading  early 
apple  states  of  the  Union.  Its  commercial  production 
conies  largely  from  the  two  regions  described  and  has 
amounted  to  the  equivalent  of  approximately  200,000 
barrels  in  a  good  crop  year. 

Delaware. 

Del-aware  is  the  most  intensive  early  apple  state  in  this 
country  and  at  the  present  time  150,000  barrels  of  early 
apples  would  not  be  an  excessive  crop  for  the  state  as  a 
whole.  The  most  intensive  plantings  are  in  Kent  and 
Sussex  counties,  about  the  towns  of  Wyoming,  Bridge- 
ville  and  Seaford.  Yellow  Transparent,  Williams  Early 
Red,  Wealthy  and  Early  Ripe  are  leading  varieties. 
Twenty  Ounce,  Red  Astrachan  and  Oldenburg  (Duchess) 
are  grown  to  a  more  limited  extent.  The  early  apple 
industry  in  Delaware  is  showing  a  marked  growth  at 
present.  It  is  the  only  important  region  outside  of  New 
Jersey  and  southern  Illinois  which  is  able  to  put  its  fruit 
on  the  market  in  any  great  quantity  prior  to  August  first. 
The  favorite  method  of  marketing  the  fruit  is  in  %-bushel 
baskets.  The  Delaware  early  apple  district  extends  into 
the  eastern  shore  of  Maryland.  , 


Leading  Apple  Regions  of  the  United  States         83 

Southern  and  Middle  Atlantic  states. 

Yellow  Transparent  is  the  leading  variety  in  the  more 
southern  districts.  Early  apple  plantings,  however,  are 
more  or  less  scattered  and  limited  in  extent.  The  produc- 
tion of  Yellow  Transparent  in  the  vicinity  of  Bowling 
Green,  Kentucky,  and  central  Tennessee  is  increasing. 

East  North  Central  states. 

Along  the  north  side  of  the  Ohio  River  in  Ohio  and 
Indiana  are  considerable  plantings  of  early  varieties,  par- 
ticularly of  Oldenburg  (Duchess)  and  Yellow  Transpar- 
ent. Large  commercial  plantings  of  the  latter  variety  are 
also  found  in  central  Ohio. 

In  Michigan  and  Wisconsin  the  Oldenburg  (Duchess) 
and  Wealthy  are  prominent  varieties.  Their  maturity, 
however,  is  greatly  delayed  in  these  regions  with  the  result 
that  they  enter  the  market  too  late  to  be  classed  as  distinctly 
early  varieties. 

Southern  Illinois. 

One  of  the  most  intensive  early  apple  regions  in  the 
country  is  in  the  extreme  southern  part  of  Illinois.  Union 
and  Johnson  are  the  leading  counties  and  include  extensive 
plantings  of  Benoni,  Yellow  Transparent,  Oldenburg 
(Duchess),  Sops  of  Wine,  Red  June,  Chenango,  and 
Cornell  Red  Streak.  This  region  has  produced  as  many 
as  800  cars  of  early  apples  in  a  season.  Production  is 
likely  to  increase. 

California. 

Scattered  plantings  of  early  apples  are  found  throughout 


84  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

the  western  states,  but  they  are  relatively  limited  and 
unimportant  commercially  with  the  exception  of  the  Sebas- 
topol  region  of  Sonoma  County,  California.  This  region 
has  become  well  known  through  its  production  of  Graven- 
steins,  shipping  over  500  cars  of  this  variety  in  a  single 
season. 


CHAPTER  III 

COMMERCIAL  APPLE  PRODUCTION  IN 

CANADA,  AUSTRALIA  AND 

NEW  ZEALAND 

UNITED  STATES  is  far  ahead  of  any  other  country  in  the 
production  of  commercial  apples.  Only  in  some  of  the 
British  Dominions  has  apple-growing  attained  commercial 
proportions  on  an  organized  scale.  England,  France,  Ger- 
many, Russia  and  many  parts  of  Europe  have  enormous 
numbers  of  apple  trees  but  most  of  the  fruit  does  not  enter 
the  world  market,  and  in  France  nearly  90  per  cent  of  the 
crop  is  used  for  cider  or  beverage  purposes.  Europe 
depends  on  United  States,  Canada,  Australia  and  New  Zea- 
land for  its  supply  of  high  grade  fruit.  South  Africa  is 
developing  commercial  apple-growing  but  as  yet  the  pro- 
duction is  not  a  factor  in  the  world's  markets. 

CANADA 

Canada  at  present  (1920)  will  normally  produce  from 
18  to  20  per  cent  as  many  commercial  apples  as  the  United 
States.  The  last  decennial  census  (1911)  credited  Canada 
with  16,217,176  trees,  about  60  per  cent  of  which  were 
then  bearing.  Apples  are  grown  commercially  in  British 
Columbia,  Ontario,  Nova  Scotia,  Quebec,  New  Brunswick 
and  Prince  Edward  Island,  but  the  principal  commercial 
sections  are  in  the  first  three  provinces.  The  commercial 
85 


86  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

crop  in  1912  was  estimated  at  5,000,000  barrels.  An 
estimate  of  3,568,000  barrels  was  made  for  1918,  of  which 
British  Columbia  produced  459,300,  Nova  Scotia  808,600, 
Quebec  and  New  Brunswick  perhaps  100,000,  leaving 
Ontario  with  an  estimated  production  of  2,200,000  barrels. 
In  1919,  the  Canadian  crop  amounted  to  1,500,000  barrels 
in  Nova  Scotia  alone. 

The  exports  of  apples  from  Canada  for  the  past  eleven 
years  have  been  as  follows : 

TABLE  IV. —  APPLE  EXPORTS  FROM  CANADA 

1909 1,604,477 

1910 523,658 

1911 1,664,165 

1912 1,324,769 

1913 947,382 

1914 1,117,336 

1915 557,451 

1916 570,854 

1917 103,626 

1918 405,058 

1919 591,805 

For  the  five  years  from  1909  to  1913,  the  average  export 
was  1,212,000  barrels,  while  the  average  for  the  years 
1914  to  1918  was  only  510,865.  This,  of  course,  is  partly 
due  to  the  British  embargo  on  apples  in  1917.  About  90 
per  cent  of  the  Canadian  exports  are  to  Great  Britain 
under  ordinary  circumstances. 

Nova  Scotia  (Plate  VI). 

The  commercial  apple-growing  district  embraces  a  com- 
paratively small  area,  roughly  described  as  the  Annapolis 
Valley,  about  one  hundred  miles  long  and  from  six  to  eleven 
miles  wide.  The  principal  apple-growing  counties  are 
Kings,  Annapolis  and  Hants,  which  produce  about  75  per 


Canada,  Australia  and  New  Zealand  87 

cent  of  the  total  crop.  The  commercial  production  in 
Xova  Scotia  for  the  years  1911  to  1919  inclusive,  together 
with  the  exports,  are  as  follows : 

TABLE  V. —  PRODUCTION  AND  EXPORTS  OF  APPLES  m  NOVA  SCOTIA 

Commercial 

Year.  Production.  Exports. 

(Bbls.)  (Bbls.) 

1911  ^ 1,734,876 1,408,700 

1912  993,523 801,000 

1913  651,390 519,582 

1914  981,437 752,500 

1915  613,882 416,500 

1916  681,470 416,808 

1917  744,730 13,700 

1918  808,600 271,170 

1919 1,500,000 492,180 

During  the  past  five  war  years,  production  has  undoubt- 
edly suffered  through  lack  of  care  and  it  is  probable  that 
planting  in  Nova  Scotia  in  the  last  ten  years  has  not  been 
more  than  sufficient  to  'take  care  of  the  average  annual 
mortality.  Some  fairly  large  orchards,  however,  are  only 
now  coming  into  bearing,  and  it  seems  reasonable  to  expect 
an  annual  commercial  crop  in  Nova  Scotia  for  the  next 
decade  of  about  1,000,000  barrels. 

The  leading  commercial  varieties  of  this  district  are  the 
King,  Gravenstein,  Golden  Russet,  Roxbury  Russet, 
Blenheim  Orange,  Ribston,  Baldwin,  Bishop  Pippin  (Bell- 
flower),  Stark  and  Ben  Davis.  The  Nova  Scotian  Grav- 
enstein, King,  Blenheim  and  Russet  are  particularly  well 
and  favorably  known  on  the  English  markets.  The  Grav- 
enstein  is  undoubtedly  the  outstanding  variety. 

The  climatic  conditions  are  particularly  favorable  inas- 
much as  the  apple  area  is  practically  an  island,  preventing 
extremes  of  temperature,  and  irrigation  is,  of  course, 
unnecessary.  Clean  cultivation  is  the  general  rule,  about 


88  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

50  per  cent  of  the  orchards  depending  almost  solely  on 
commercial  fertilizers. 

For  many  years  Xova  Scotia  has  shipped  her  surplus 
crop  to  Great  Britain,  principally  to  London.  Her  ship- 
pers are  particularly  well  situated  to  take  advantage  of 
this  trade  as  they  are  all  within  a  few  hours  of  the  ports 
of  Halifax  and  St.  John. 

The  chief  disadvantage  of  the  district  is  its  comparative 
isolation  from  the  large  home  markets.  In  order  to  com- 
pete with  Ontario  fruit  on  the  large  consuming  markets  of 
the  northwestern  provinces,  Nova  Scotian  shippers  start 
with  a  handicap  of  a  rail  haul  of  over  twenty-four  hours. 
With  the  European  market  open,  this  is  not  serious  inas- 
much as  this  market  is  capable  of  some  extension. 

Prince  Edward  Island  and  New  Brunswick. 

Prince  Edward  Island  and  Xew  Brunswick  do  not  grow 
enough  apples  for  home  consumption  at  the  present  time. 
Both  these  provinces,  however,  possess  large  areas  with  a 
soil  and  climate  well  adapted  to  the  commercial  production 
of  the  hardier  varieties.  Prince  Edward  Island  has  suf- 
fered in  the  past  from  the  poor  transportation  between  the 
island  and  the  mainland  but  this  has  improved  of  late, 
and  the  apple  industry  should  consequently  be  encouraged. 

The  St.  John  Valley  of  New  Brunswick  has  excellent 
prospects  as  a  commercial  apple-growing  district,  and  it  is 
probable  that  the  next  ten  years  will  show  a  very  marked 
increase  in  the  production  in  this  province,  which  during 
the  past  decade  ranged  from  75,000  to  100,000  barrels. 
Fairly  low  temperatures  are  experienced  in  the  winter, 
and  the  leading  varieties  are  the  Duchess,  Fameuse,  Alex- 


Canada,  Australia  and  New  Zealand  89 

ander,  Mclntosh  Red,  Wolf  River  and  Bethel.  Most  of 
the  orchards  are  in  sod.  Transportation  facilities  are 
good  from  the  St.  John  Valley,  and  its  nearness  to  the  sea- 
board would  be  a  decided  advantage  when  the  production 
is  sufficient  to  make  an  export  trade  desirable. 

Quebec. 

Apples  have  been  grown  in  Quebec  longer  perhaps  than 
in  any  other  district  in  Canada,  with  the  exception  of  Nova 
Scotia,  records  showing  that  they  were  produced  in  this 
province  as  early  as  1663.  The  industry,  however,  has  not 
developed  to  any  great  extent.  The  Fameuse  is  claimed 
to  have  originated  in  Quebec,  and  it  and  other  varieties  of 
the  same  type  (Wealthy,  Mclntosh  Red,  St.  Lawrence) 
reach  a  very  high  state  of  perfection.  Pomme  Grise,  or 
French  Russet,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  has  long  been 
grown  in  Quebec.  The  commercial  production  is  confined 
largely  to  the  Island  of  Montreal,  Como,  LaTrappe,  St. 
Joseph  du  Lac,  Hemmingford  and  Covey  Hill,  Chateau- 
guay,  St.  Hilaire,  Rougemont  and  Abbotsford  districts. 
The  Census  of  1911  gave  the  production  of  Quebec  as  over 
400,000  barrels,  but  it  is  not  probable  that  the  average 
annual  commercial  production  of  the  past  two  or  three 
years  has  been  more  than  100,000  barrels.  The  orchards 
are  principally  in  sod,  many  of  them  have  not  received 
proper  attention  and,  in  addition,  it  is  estimated  that  fully 
40  per  cent  of  the  trees  were  destroyed  by  the  severe  win- 
ter of  1917.  There  is  evidence,  however,  of  a  revival  in 
apple-growing,  arid  some  of  the  highest  average  returns  for 
Canadian  apples,  in  late  years,  have  been  made  by  Quebec 
orchardists. 


90  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

Ontario. 

Ontario  still  produces  considerably  over  50  per  cent  of 
the  crop  of  apples  in  Canada,  but  only  in  limited  areas  is 
the  industry  specialized  as  it  is  in  Nova  Scotia  and  British 
Columbia.  The  exports  in  the  past  ten  years  have  not 
been  nearly  so  great  as  those  of  Nova  Scotia,  but  this  is 
due  to  the  many  large  markets  within  the  province,  to  the 
greater  ease  with  which  the  Ontario  shippers  can  reach  the 
markets  of  the  Northwest,  which  have  been  tremendously 
developed  during  the  past  decade,  to  the  fact  that  the  ports 
of  export  are  not  as  convenient  to  Ontario  shippers  as  to 
those  of  Nova  Scotia  and,  particularly  in  the  past  four  or 
five  years,  to  the  great  risk  and  uncertainty  attending  ocean 
transportation.  In  the  eastern  part  of  the  province,  along 
the  St.  Lawrence  and  Ottawa  rivers,  are  some  very  fine 
orchards  of  the  Duchess,  Wealthy,  Mclntosh  Red  and 
Fameuse  type.  The  Mclntosh  Red,  which  for  some  years 
has  been  the  highest  priced  apple  on  the  Canadian  markets, 
was  originated  at  the  town  of  Dundela  in  the  County  of 
Dundas  in  this  district  in  1830. 

The  largest  orchards  of  Ontario  are  between  Kingston 
and  Toronto  in  what  is  commonly  known  as  the  Lake 
Ontario  district.  Prince  Edward  County,  the  southern 
part  of  Hastings,  Northumberland,  Durham  and  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  County  of  Ontario,  grow  all  the  standard 
varieties,  and  ship  thousands  of  cars  of  apples  annually  to 
the  large  eastern  markets  and  to  the  markets  of  Canadian 
Northwest.  In  addition,  this  section  does  a  large  export 
trade  with  Great  Britain.  The  leading  varieties  for  export 
are  the  Baldwin,  Spy,  King,  Russet,  Ontario,  Pewaukee, 
Stark  and  Ben  Davis,  but  large  quantities  of  Duchess, 


Canada,  Australia  and  New  Zealand  91 

Wealthy,  Fameuse,  Wagener,  Rhode  Island  Greening,  Tol- 
man,  Canada  Red,  and  Cranberry,  are  also  produced. 
Many  of  the  orchards  in  this  district  are  more  than  a  hun- 
dred years  old,  and  the  apple  industry  is  perhaps  more  spe- 
cialized and  better  organized  than  in  any  other  part  of  On- 
tario. An  outstanding  feature  of  the  apples  grown  here  is 
their  keeping  quality.  The  climatic  conditions  are  such 
that  the  trees  do  not  start  into  growth  as  early  as  in  south- 
ern Ontario  and  yet  the  season  is  sufficiently  long  for  the 
best  varieties  to  mature.  Consequently  the  apples  are  just 
ready  to  pick  at  the  approach  of  freezing  weather  and, 
when  stored  in  ordinary  warehouses,  go  into  a  natural  cold 
storage  where  they  retain  their  keeping  qualities  until  the 
following  spring.  This  saves  the  cost  of  cold  storage,  giv- 
ing the  shippers  of  this  district  a  considerable  advantage 
over  more  southern  regions.  Large  storehouses  have  been 
erected  along  the  railway  lines  at  such  points  as  Belleville, 
Trenton,  Brighton,  Colborne,  Grafton,  Port  Hope,  New- 
castle, Bowmanville,  Oshawa  and  Whitby.  Colborne,  for 
example,  has  over  a  dozen  warehouses,  with  a  capacity  of 
more  than  100,000  barrels. 

In  southwestern  Ontario  (including  the  Niagara 
Peninsula),  while  apples  of  high  quality  are  produced  in 
considerable  quantities,  the  industry  is  not  specialized, 
except  in  a  few  localities,  such  as  Norfolk  and  Lambton 
counties.  This  district,  however,  has  one  great  advantage 
as  it  is  able  to  get  its  early  apples  on  the  market  about  two 
weeks  earlier  than  any  other  part  of  eastern  Canada. 

Throughout  western  Ontario,  particularly  along  the 
shores  of  Lake  Huron  and  Georgian  Bay,  large  quantities 
of  apples  of  the  standard  varieties  are  grown.  In  the 
Georgian  Bay  district,  the  conditions  are  very  similar  to 


92  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

those  in  the  region  north  of  Lake  Ontario,  and  orcharding 
is  carried  on  as  a  special  industry,  but  in  the  greater  part 
of  western  Ontario  the  apple  orchard  is  usually  a  side  line 
to  general  farming,  and  consequently  the  same  attention  is 
not  given  to  the  details  of  spraying,  pruning,  cultivating, 
packing  and  marketing  as  in  the  districts  where  apple- 
growing  is  the  main  industry.  In  the  aggregate,  however, 
the  crop  of  western  Ontario  has  a  very  marked  influence  on 
the  commercial  production  of  the  province.  The  leading 
varieties  are  the  Spy,  Baldwin,  King,  Greening,  Ben 
Davis  and  other  standard  sorts  but  as  the  distance  from 
Lake  Huron  and  Georgian  Bay  increases,  the  earlier  and 
hardier  varieties  are  more  in  evidence. 

British  Columbia. 

The  apple  industry  in  this  province  is  comparatively 
new,  but  has  developed  rapidly  and  along  highly  specialized 
lines,  so  that  it  is  now  a  considerable  factor  in  the  market- 
able crop  of  Canada.  The  Dominion  Census  of  1901 
credited  British  Columbia  with  220,000  bearing  and  170,- 
960  non-bearing  apple  trees,  while  in  1911  the  figures  were 
510,763  bearing  and  1,465,622  non-bearing  trees ;  and  the 
increase  in  the  last  nine  years  has  probably  been  fully  50 
per  cent.  Following  is  a  statement  of  the  commercial  pro- 
duction for  the  years  1911  to  1919  inclusive: 

TABLE  VI.—  PRODUCTION  OF  APPLES  EN  BRITISH  COLUMBIA 

Tear.  Boxes. 

1911 225,100 

1912 386,640 

1913 456,380 

1914 615,600 

1915 993,060 

1916 1,376,310 


Canada,  Australia  and  New  Zealand  93 

Year.  Boxes. 

1917  1,785,405 

1918 1,378,005 

1919   2,500,000 

Many  thousands  of  acres  have  just  come  into  bearing 
within  the  past  two  or  three  years,  while  a  considerable 
acreage  is  still  not  bearing  commercial  crops,  and  there 
will  undoubtedly  be  a  steadily  increasing  production  for 
the  next  decade.  To  offset  this,  however,  consideration 
should  be  given  to  the  fact  that  there  has  been  very  little 
planting  in  the  past  five  years  arid  in  addition  the  orchards 
of  British  Columbia  have  in  some  cases  suffered  through 
lack  of  cara 

The  most  noted  section  is  the  Okanogan  Valley,  where 
the  Coldstream  Kanch,  consisting  of  some  600  acres  of 
orchard  in  various  stages,  is  located;  this  was  established 
about  twenty  years  ago  by  Lord  Aberdeen  when  Governor 
General  of  Canada,  and  is  one  of  the  oldest  commercial 
orchards  in  the  province.  While  the  Okanogan  is  the 
largest  section,  in  point  of  acreage  devoted  to  apple-grow- 
ing, thousands  of  acres  of  orchard  have  been  planted  during 
the  past  ten  or  twenty  years  in  the  Arrow  Lakes,  Kootenay 
and  contiguous  districts,  along  the  Thompson  and  Fraser 
rivers  to  the  Coast,  and  also  on  the  Island  of  Vancouver. 

The  climatic  conditions  are  very  varied,  both  dry  and 
wet  growing  seasons  being  found  in  the  different  fruit 
regions.  In  the  Okanogan,  a  very  extensive  system  of 
irrigation  is  in  operation.  The  district  being  new,  it  has 
not  yet  suffered  to  any  serious  extent  from  the  insect  pests 
and  diseases  common  to  the  more  established  fruit  sections. 
In  addition,  a  very  rigid  system  of  inspecting  imported 
nursery  stock  has  been  in  force  for  many  years.  The 


94  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

apples  are  generally  large  in  size,  possibly  owing  to  the 
fact  that  most  of  them  are  produced  on  young  trees,  are 
usually  very  highly  colored  and  of  high  quality  and, 
packed  in  boxes,  reach  the  market  in  excellent  condition. 

Practically  all  the  standard  varieties  of  the  East 
(Wealthy,  Duchess,  Mclntosh  Red,  Spy,  Wagener)  are 
produced  in  large  quantities  in  British  Columbia,  but  in 
addition  the  Jonathan,  Newtown,  Rome  Beauty,  Winesap, 
Ontario,  Grimes  Golden,  Winter  Banana  and  Esopus 
(Spitzenburg)  are  grown  to  perfection.  The  crop  is  mar- 
keted principally  within  the  province  and  throughout 
Alberta,  Saskatchewan  and  Manitoba.  When  there  are 
light  crops  in  eastern  Canada,  comparatively  large  quan- 
tities of  British  Columbia  apples  have  been  shipped  to 
Toronto,  Montreal  and  Quebec  and  as  far  east  as  St.  John, 
New  Brunswick.  Up  to  the  present  time,  the  largest  ex- 
port trade  has  been  with  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  the 
following  table  showing  the  exports  to  these  countries 
during  the  years  1913  to  1917  inclusive: 

TABLE  VII. —  EXPORTS  TO  AUSTRALIA  AND  NEW  ZEALAND 

Year.  Boxes. 

1913  31,127 

1914  40,816 

1915  54,592 

1916 70,000 

1917  76,000 

In  1918,  owing  to  the  Australian  embargo  on  apples, 
there  were  no  exports  to  that  country,  and  only  some 
15,000  boxes  to  New  Zealand. 

British  Columbia  apples  have  also  been  exported  to  the 
markets  of  Great  Britain,  South  America,  the  West  Indies 
and  South  Africa,  and  an  outlet  is,  therefore,  being  pre- 


Canada,  Australia  and  New  Zealand  95 

pared  to  take  care  profitably  of  the  anticipated  increase  in 
production. 

AUSTRALIA  AND  NEW  ZEALAND 

Australia,  Tasmania  and  New  Zealand  have  claimed 
attention  in  the  commercial  apple  world  only  within  recent 
years.  Outside  of  North  America,  these  countries  are  now 
the  most  important  commercial  apple  regions  in  the  world. 
The  area  in  bearing  apple  trees  is  about  50,000  acres  in 
Australia  mainland,  25,000  acres  in  Tasmania  and  15,000 
acres  in  New  Zealand  and  in  all  cases  the  acreage  is  increas- 
ing. The  acreage  of  New  Zealand  is  strictly  commercial 
while  some  of  that  of  Australia  and  Tasmania  is  not.  The 
export  to  foreign  markets  amounts  to  several  million  boxes, 
and  promises  to  increase.  The  commercial  production  of 
Australia,  New  Zealand  and  Tasmania  is  now  about  one- 
half  that  of  Canada  and  one-tenth  that  of  United  States. 

On  the  mainland  of  Australia,  the  orchard  areas  are 
principally  along  the  coast,  the  larger  portion  being  in 
the  southern  states  and  along  the  southwest  coast  of  west 
Australia.  In  Tasmania  the  plantings  are  general  and 
the  only  sections  unsuitable  for  fruit-culture  are  the  mid- 
lands along  the  west  coast.  In  New  Zealand  the  distribu- 
tion is  fairly  general  in  both  north  and  south  islands  except 
on  the  west  coast.  The  main  commercial  plantings,  how- 
ever, are  in  the  Nelson-Auckland  districts. 

The  bulk  of  the  crop  in  Australia,  Tasmania  and  New 
Zealand  is  at  the  present  time  consumed  locally,  the  annual 
foreign  exports  amounting  to  about  one-fourth  of  the  pro- 
duction. The  principal  outlet  or  foreign  markets  for  these 
apples  have  been  England  and  Germany,  and  the  export 
trade  prior  to  the  war  was  increasing  very  rapidly. 


96  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

From  about  1910  to  1915,  the  plantings  were  very 
heavy  but  owing  to  war  conditions  and  the  consequent 
dislocation  of  markets,  there  has  been  very  little  increase 
in  areas  in  trees  since  that  date.  However,  with  the  re- 
turn to  normal  conditions  one  may  expect  to  see  a  decided 
spurt  in  planting.  The  tendency  is  to  specialize  in  small 
holdings  in  order  to  overcome  labor  difficulties,  and  in  some 
districts  apple-growing  is  combined  with  general  farming. 
The  average  orchard  has  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  acres, 
so  that  most  individual  plantings  are  small.  In  this  re- 
spect it  is  more  like  the  northwestern  orchards  than  the 
barreled  apple  sections  of  eastern  United  States. 

The  harvest  season  for  Australian  apples  is  a  long  one. 
Trees  are  picked  over  for  the  largest  fruit  about  every 
two  weeks  from  the  middle  of  February  to  the  middle  of 
April,  for  export  to  England  and  foreign  markets.  The 
remainder  of  the  crop  and  those  varieties  maturing  too 
late  for  export  are  picked  and  stored  either  in  packing- 
houses, in  orchards,  or  in  common  storage  and  are  then 
packed  out  at  the  owner's  discretion.  This  means  that 
fruit  is  being  packed  out  nearly  all  the  year.  Picking  and 
packing  is  nearly  all  by  day  labor.  The  fruit  is  wrapped 
and  packed  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  northwestern 
method.  No  standardization  of  grades  has  thus  far  been 
attempted,  each  individual  grower  making  his  own  grades. 
The  bulk  of  the  Australian  apples  is  harvested  from  Feb- 
ruary to  May  and  reaches  the  foreign  markets  during  April, 
May  and  June.  They  could  be  placed  on  American  mar- 
kets from  March  to  August.  In  shipping  the  fruit,  it  is 
usually  packed  in  bulk  or  boxes  containing  one  imperial 
bushel  or  half  bushel.  Many  canning  factories  buy  fruit 
by  weight.  The  general  export  varieties  of  Australia, 


Canada,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand  97 

Tasmania  and  New  Zealand  are  quite  different  from  the 
sorts  grown  in  the  United  States,  although  in  many  cases 
the  more  important  Australian  varieties  are  very  important 
commercially  in  this  country.  The  following  gives  the 
general  export  varieties  somewhat  in  order  of  their  im- 
portance : 


VICTORIA 

Jonathan 
Ortley     (Cleopatra) 
Dunn's 
Reinette 
Coxe's  Orange  Pippin 
Sturmer 
Emperor  Alexander 
London  Pippin 

TASMANIA                      NEW  ZEALAND 

Sturmer                        Dunn's 
Ortley                             Coxe's  Orange  Pippi: 
Scarlet  Nonpareil        Sturmer 
Jonathan                        Jonathan 
Coxe's  Orange  Pippin  Yates 
Ribston 
Worcester 

These  varieties  are  among  the  more  important,  although 
others  are  constantly  increasing.  Jonathan  is  increasing 
everywhere  on  account  of  its  good  bearing  qualities  and 
relative  freedom  from  diseases.  Delicious  is  still  in  its 
infancy,  but  is  taking  well  with  both  producer  and  con- 
sumer, and  promises  to  increase  rapidly.  Esopus  (Spitz- 
enburg)  is  going  out  of  favor  as  it  is  very  subject  to  scab 
and  is  a  biennial  bearer.  The  Stayman  is  coming  into 
favor  in  New  Zealand. 

In  the  care  of  the  orchard,  much  the  same  method  is 
followed  as  in  the  northwestern  orchards,  although  very 
few  sections  are  irrigated. 

The  trees  are  pruned  on  similar  lines  in  Australia,  Tas- 
mania and  New  Zealand.  They  are  usually  cut  back  very 
severely  for  the  first  five  years,  and  growers  favor  a  strong 
frame-work  of  twelve  to  sixteen  limbs,  at  as  nearly  equal 
distances  from  each  other  as  possible ;  thereafter  lighter 
pruning  is  practiced  as  trees  come  into  bearing.  The  trees 


98  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

are  formed  with  an  open  center  to  admit  light,  thus  en- 
couraging fruiting,  particularly  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
tree.  Strong  fruit-spurs  on  the  main  limbs  are  preferred, 
but  laterals  are  used  on  some  varieties,  notably  the  Jona- 
than, in  order  to  bring  extra  vigorous  growers  into  earlier 
bearing.  Most  trees  are  planted  from  sixteen  to  twenty 
feet  apart,  and  the  orchards  are  kept  more  compact  than 
in  the  Northwest.  Australian  growers  claim  that  this 
gives  greater  efficiency  in  the  orchard  operations.  The 
ladder  is  seldom  needed  for  picking  or  pruning  for  the 
first  ten  years.  The  closer  planting  makes  the  yield  to 
the  acre  equal  to  that  of  America.  No  doubt  when  these 
orchards  obtain  considerable  age,  the  disadvantages  of  this 
closer  planting  system  will  be  brought  out. 

The  orchards  are  cultivated  much  the  same  as  in 
America,  and  commercial  fertilizers  are  used  very  exten- 
sively. It  is  also  a  common  practice  to  sow  cover-crops. 
Thinning  the  fruit  is  not  a  general  practice  and  many 
growers  try  to  combat  over-cropping  by  systematic  bud  or 
spur  thinning.  Australian  growers  have  not  found  that 
thinning  has  any  marked  effect  in  making  annual  bearers 
of  those  varieties  given  to  biennial  bearing. 

Many  of  the  same  diseases  and  insects  are  prevalent  as 
in  America.  The  black-spot  or  scab  is  the  worst  disease 
with  which  the  Australian  growers  have  to  contend. 
Woolly  aphis  (Australian  blight)  comes  next,  closely  fol- 
lowed by  the  codlin-moth.  In  some  of  the  more  humid 
districts,  mildew  seriously  affects  many  varieties.  Bitter- 
pit  has  been  especially  bad  on  young  trees.  Fire-blight  is 
not  yet  known. 

Cooperative  marketing  is  as  yet  little  in  evidence  ex- 
cept in  the  direction  and  management  of  cold-storage 


Canada,  Australia  and  New  Zealand  99 

houses.  Such  propositions  as  these  were  formerly  in  the 
hands  of  the  government,  but  under  the  cooperative  man- 
agement the  charges  have  been  reduced.  Cooperation  in 
this  respect  is  increasing  rapidly,  especially  in  Victoria 
on  the  mainland.  The  Northwest  in  the  United  States  is 
far  ahead  of  Australia  in  cooperative  methods  of  handling 
and  distributing. 

The  Australians  are  agreed  that  they  may  learn  much 
from  America  in  the  equipment  of  packing-houses,  es- 
pecially on  labor-saving  devices.  Many  Australians  are 
particularly  proud  of  their  pruning  methods  and  in  this 
respect  they  are  convinced  that  the  American  orchardist 
might  learn  something  from  them. 


CHAPTER  IV 

LOCALITY  AND  SITE  FOR  THE  COMMERCIAL 
ORCHARD 

BEFORE  investing  in  an  apple  orchard,  both  the  locality 
and  specific  site  should  be  carefully  considered.  Cir- 
cumstances may  often  prevent  the  free  choice  of  a  locality, 
but  the  site  of  the  orchard  is  usually  within  the  direct 
control  of  the  grower,  and  may  determine  largely  the  suc- 
cess of  the  enterprise. 

CHOOSING    THE    LOCALITY 

The  fruit-grower  should  know  the  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages of  the  different  apple-producing  regions ;  there- 
fore, each  important  apple  region  will  be  discussed  briefly 
and  some  of  the  factors  of  interest  in  this  connection  set 
down.  In  Chapter  V  will  be  discussed  the  factors  which 
govern  the  proper  selection  of  the  site  for  an  orchard 
within  a  given  region. 

WESTERN  NEW  YORK 

Advantages. 

1.  Western  New  York  is  an  established,  well  developed  and 
productive  apple  region,  prominent  in  the  apple  industry  for 
over  a  century. 

2.  Land  values  have  been  reasonable  in  comparison  with  those 
in  other  apple  regions. 

3.  The   bulk  of  the   production   is  of   standard   commercial 
varieties  well  adapted  to  the  section. 

100 


Locality  and  Site  for  the  Commercial  Orchard     101  ^ 

4.  Western  New  York  is  a  stable  progressive  region,  where 
land  booms  do  not  flourish  and  where  there  is  not  over-special- 
ization of  any  particular  crop. 

5.  It  enjoys  proximity  to  market  and  has  excellent  facilities 
for  storing  and  handling  fruit. 

6.  The  land  is  easily  worked  and  the  maintenance  cost  is  not 
excessive. 

7.  This  region  is  rather  densely  populated  and  sufficient  labor 
is  usually  available  from  the  nearby  towns  and  cities  during 
harvest  time. 

8.  Good  yields. 

Disadvantages. 

1.  The  varieties,  Baldwin  and  Greening,  for  which  this  sec- 
tion is  best  known,  are  not  of  the  highest  quality  and  as  a  rule 
under-sell  such  varieties  as  Winesap,  Jonathan  and  Grimes. 

2.  Orchards  are  susceptible  to  scab  and  in  many  cases  the 
crop  has  been  practically  ruined  and  the  percentage  of  high- 
grade  fruit  cut  to  a  minimum  on  account  of  this  disease. 

3.  The  average  orchard  in  western  New  York  does  not  receive 
the  highly  intensive  care  which  characterizes  some  other  regions. 
This  disadvantage  can  be  remedied  by  the  individual  owner, 
however,  and  is  not  inherent  to  the  region. 

4:.  Bearing  orchards  are  well  advanced  in  years  and  do  not 
as  a  rule  bear  the  high  percentage  of  fancy  fruit  which  may  be 
expected  from  young  trees. 

5.  Trees  are  slow  coming  into  bearing. 

6.  Rigorous  winters  are  common. 

HUDSON  VALLEY 

Advantages. 

1.  The  Hudson  Valley  enjoys  the  distinct  advantage  of  close 
proximity  to  market.     The  growers  in  this  region  are  enabled 
to  keep  in  intimate  touch  with  trade  conditions  in  New  York 
City  and  are  able  to  place  their  fruit  on  the  market  within  a 
few  hours  from  the  time  it  is  shipped. 

2.  Fancy  trade  varieties  of  apples  can  be  grown  profitably  and 


102  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

marketed  successfully  by  catering  to  specialized  trade.  Such 
varieties  as  Macintosh,  Northern  Spy,  Oldenburg  (Duchess), 
Gravenstein,  Wealthy  and  Fall  Pippin,  which  are  adapted  to 
this  region,  lend  themselves  well  to  the  development  of  such 
trade. 

3.  Land  values  have  been  very   reasonable  in  the  Hudson 
Valley. 

Disadvantages. 

1.  The  annual  yields  of  the  Hudson  Valley  are  smaller  than 
those  of  western  New  York;  also  smaller  than  the  Shenandoah- 
Cumberland  region. 

2.  On  the  whole  the  soil  is  not  as  rich  as  in  western  New 
York  and,  although  adapted  to  many  varieties,  requires  con- 
siderable fertilization  in  some  instances  to  secure  good  annual 
crops. 

3.  Orchards   are   not   entirely   free   from   occasional   severe 
winter  injury. 

4.  Land  does  not  lend  itself  so  well  to  general  farming  and  is 
in  places  quite  rolling. 

5.  Rigorous  winters  are  common. 

CHAMPLAIN  DISTRICT 

Advantages. 

1.  The  Champlain  district,  bordering  Lake  Champlain  and 
Lake  George  in  New  York  and  Vermont,  is  especially  adapted 
to  such  high  quality  varieties  as  Northern  Spy  and  Mclntosh, 

2.  The  high  prices  for  its  fruit,  fair  yields  and  reasonable 
proximity  to  important  markets  argue  in  favor  of  this  region. 

Disadvantages. 

1.  Trees  in  this  region  are  rather  slow  growing,  seldom  attain 
the  size,  and  do  not  as  a  rule  produce  the  high  annual  crops 
common  to  western  New  York. 

2.  Although    Mclntosh   seems   to   be   reasonably    safe   from 
winter-injury,  other  varieties  occasionally  suffer  severely  from 
winter-killing. 


Locality  and  Site  for  the  Commercial  Orchard      103 

3.  This  locality  is  not  of  sufficient  size  to  warrant  the  com- 
petition among  the  buyers  which  is  generally  found  in  the  larger 
districts. 

4.  The  region  is  less  accessible  than  such  districts  as  the 
Hudson  Valley. 

5.  Rigorous  winters  are  common. 

NEW   ENGLAND 

Advantages. 

1.  The  outstanding  advantage  of  New  England  orchards  is 
their  proximity  to  centers  of  consumption  such  as  Boston  and 
other  large  cities. 

2.  Foreign  export  trade  draws  rather  heavily  on  New  England 
production,  particularly  has  it  been  partial  to  Maine  Baldwins. 

3.  Land  values  are  reasonable. 

4.  The  revived  interest  in  apple-growing  is  serving  to  bring 
to  prominence  a  number  of  specialized  districts  which  are  capa- 
ble of  producing  exceptionally  fine  fruit.     An  instance  is  the 
Wilton  district  in  southern  New  Hampshire. 

5.  Particular  localities  in  New  England  are  suited  for  growers 
who  desire  to  specialize  on  such  fancy  varieties  as  Mclntosh  and 
Wealthy  for  which  a  special  trade  can  be  built  up. 

Disadvantages. 

1.  In    general,    New    England    orchards    are    small,    rather 
scraggy,  and  include  relatively  few  highly  commercial  and  in- 
tensive plantings  such  as  are  found  in  western  New  York  and 
the  Shenandoah-Cumberland  region. 

2.  Scattered  plantings  and  limited  production  from  any  par- 
ticular region  naturally  limit  the  possibility  of  cooperative  effort 
among  growers  in  marketing  their  fruit  at  the  highest  prices. 

3.  The  industry  and  production  of  New  England  as  a  whole 
has  declined  very  materially  in  the  ten  years  prior  to  1919.     The 
future  of  apple-growing  in  this  region  probably  depends  on  the 
development  of  small  specialized  projects  rather  than  on  large 
or  general  commercial  planting. 

4.  Rigorous  winters  are  common. 


104  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

NEW   JERSEY-DELAWARE   PENINSULA 


1.  This  region  enjoys  an  almost  unequaled  advantage  of  close 
proximity  to  New  York  and  Philadelphia  markets. 

2.  It  is  adapted  to  the  production  of  varieties  such  as  Yellow 
Transparent,  Wealthy,  Williams,  Early  Eipe  and  Starr.     South- 
ern  New   Jersey  is  particularly  suited  to   the  production  of 
Yellow   Transparent,   Williams,   Early  Eipe   and    Starr,   while 
English   Codling,    Gravenstein,   Duchess,    Twenty    Ounce   and 
Wealthy  are  well  suited  to  Monmouth  County. 

3.  Orchards  in  this  region  respond  to  good  care,  and,  although 
fertilization  is  sometimes  necessary,   are  generally  productive. 

4.  Cost  of  production  in  this  section  has  not  been  excessively 
high  and  good  prices  have  made  the  orchards  profitable  as  a 
rule. 

Disadvantages. 

1.  Orchard   diseases  and  pests  present   a  somewhat   difficult 
problem  for  the  commercial  grower.     Late  attacks  of  codling- 
moth  are  occasionally  very  destructive. 

2.  This  region  is  not  as  well  adapted  to  the  growing  of  winter 
varieties  as  some  of  the  other  eastern  districts. 

SHEXANDOAH-CUMBERLAND  REGION 

Included  in  this  region  are  the  following  important  apple 
counties  of  southern  Pennsylvania:  Adams,  Franklin  and 
York;  also  Washington  County,  Maryland;  Berkeley  and  ad- 
joining Panhandle  counties  of  West  Virginia,  and  the  Shenan- 
doah  Valley  of  Virginia. 

Advantages. 

1.  A  large  part  of  the  apple  acreage  of  this  region  is  just 
coming  into  bearing  and  an  increased  production  of  high-grade 
fruit   may   be   expected    from   this   young   and   well-cared-for 
acreage. 

2.  The  leading  varieties,  York  Imperial,  Ben  Davis,   Stay- 


Locality  and  Site  for  the  Commercial  Orchard     105 

man  and  Grimes,  comprise  the  bulk  of  the  production  and  are 
well  known  as  profitable  varieties. 

3.  Yields  average  with  those  of  the  best  eastern  orchards. 

4.  The  region   enjoys   reasonable  proximity  to  markets. 

5.  Centralization   and   intensity   of  plantings   offer   excellent 
opportunity  for  cooperation  and  regional  development. 

6.  Fairly  cheap  labor  is  ordinarily  available. 

Disadvantages. 

1.  Although  one  of  the  most  promising  eastern  apple  regions, 
the  Shenandoah-Cumberland  is  not  entirely  free  from  certain 
disadvantages.     Cedar  rust  is  severe  in  some  parts  of  this  region 
on  York  Imperial  and  Ben  Davis  trees;  pine  and  meadow  mice 
have  been  doing  considerable  damage  to  many  of  the  trees  and 
root-rot  occurs  in  some  localities. 

2.  Land  values  at  this  time  are  relatively  high,  and  for  that 
reason  the  prospective  investor  would  need  considerable  capital 
to  get  started. 

3.  Hail  injury  is  not  uncommon. 

PIEDMONT   REGION   OF   VIRGINIA 

Advantages. 

1.  For  scenic  beauty  this  region  is  unexcelled. 

2.  Land  is  cheap  and  plentiful.     Orchard  values  have  been 
fairly  reasonable. 

3.  Good  transportation  facilities. 

4.  Labor  conditions  are  generally  satisfactory  throughout  the 
region. 

5.  High-grade  varieties  such  as  Winesap  and  Yellow  New- 
town  (Albemarle  Pippin)  predominate  and  sell  for  high  prices. 

Disadvantages. 

1.  Bitter-rot  is  particularly  injurious  in  certain  seasons. 

2.  Yields  are  lighter  than  in  the  Shenandoah-Cumberland  or 
western  New  York  regions. 

3.  The  orchard  land  is  generally  mountainous  and  somewhat 
hard  to  work. 


106  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

4.  Very  poor  roads  occur  in  some  localities  and  some  of  the 
best  apple  land  is  relatively  inaccessible. 

5.  Hail  damage  is  very  common,  particularly  on  higher  ele- 
vations, and  unfavorable  conditions  are  often  present  at  bloom- 
ing time,  rendering  the  crop  uncertain. 

SOUTHERN   OHIO   ROME   BEAUTY   SECTION 

Advantages. 

1.  Land  values  have  been  relatively  reasonable  in  price. 

2.  The  region  is  fairly  close  to  important  markets. 

3.  Quality  of  fruit,  particularly  that  of  the  Rome  Beauty, 
is  good. 

Disadvantages. 

1.  Yields  are  generally  lower  than  in  western  New  York  or 
most  other  eastern  districts. 

2.  The  land  is  rough  and  mountainous  and  the  orchard  plant- 
ings are  somewhat  isolated. 

3.  Much  of  the  fruit  has  to  be  ferried  across  the  Ohio  River. 

4.  Frost-injury  does  occasional  damage  in  the  spring. 

5.  The  soil  is  naturally  poor  and  requires  considerable  fertil- 
ization, particularly  in  the  form  of  nitrates. 

WESTERN  MICHIGAN 

Advantages. 

1.  Western  Michigan  is  an  established,  well  developed  and 
productive  apple  region,  prominent  in  the  apple  industry  for 
many  years. 

2.  Land  values  have  been  reasonable. 

3.  It  enjoys  proximity  to  important  markets  in  large  central 
west  cities. 

4.  Yields  are  good. 

5.  Higher  quality  varieties  are  grown  in  Michigan  than  in 
most  other  middle  western  states. 

Disadvantages. 
1.  Frost-injury  is  not  uncommon. 


Locality  and  Site  for  the  Commercial  Orchard     107 

2.  There  are  many  old  and  rather  neglected  orchards,  partic- 
ularly in  the  south  and  southeastern  part  of  the  state  which 
lower  the  quality  of  the  general  output  from  the  state. 

3.  Michigan   orchards   are   susceptible  to  apple-scab   and  in 
some  cases  the  crop  has  been  severely  injured  on  account  of 
prevalence  of  this  disease. 

4.  Winter-injury  to  trees  is  not  uncommon. 


Advantages. 

1.  Proximity  to  markets. 

2.  Kelatively  good  yields  in  western  Illinois,  but  rather  light 
yields  in  southern  part  of  the  state. 

3.  Orchard  values  have  been  relatively  low  in  comparison  with 
land  values. 

4.  Early  apple  section  in  extreme  southern  Illinois  is  partic- 
ularly adapted  to  the  production  of  early  varieties. 

Disadvantages. 

1.  Fungous  diseases  are  more  or  less  prevalent  and  blister- 
canker  has  caused  considerable  loss  among  Ben  Davis  and  Gano 
plantings. 

2.  Apple  plantings  are  less  centralized  than  in  most  commer- 
cial   districts    and    community    interest    is    lacking    in    some 
instances. 

3.  Quality  of  fruit  is  variable.     Such  low-grade  varieties  as 
Ben  Davis  and  Willow  Twig  predominate  in  many  regions. 

4.  Unfavorable  climatic  conditions  at  blooming  time  are  not 
uncommon. 

OZARK  REGION 

This  region  includes  intensive  apple  plantings  in  northwest 
Arkansas  and  southwest  Missouri. 

Advantages. 

1.  Labor  conditions  usually  favorable. 

2.  Possibility  for  the  renovation  of  old  orchards. 


108  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

3.  Yield  and  quality  in  well-cared-for  orchards  good  in  certain 
years. 

4.  Land  values  reasonable. 

Disadvantages. 

1.  The  region  has  many  old  and  neglected  orchards  which 
decidedly  detract  from  community  spirit  and  progressiveness 
and  lower  the  quality  of  the  output  from  the  region  as  a  whole. 

2.  Ben  Davis   and   Gano   plantings  which  predominate  are 
particularly  susceptible  to  very  serious  attacks  of  blister-canker. 

3.  Unfavorable  weather  at  blooming  time  often  prevails  and 
crop  failures  are  not  uncommon. 

4.  Average  yields  low. 

5.  System  of  bulk  handling  of  a  large  part  of  the  crop  is 
not  conducive  to  close  grading  and  the  maintenance  of  high 
commercial  standards. 

MISSOURI  RIVER  REGION 

In  this  region  are  included  the  intensive  commercial  apple 
districts  of  northwestern  Missouri,  northeastern  Kansas,  south- 
eastern Nebraska,  and  southwestern  Iowa,  in  what  is  sometimes 
called  the  loess  soil  apple  region. 

Advantages. 

1.  A  progressive*  spirit  prevails  to  a  greater  extent  than  among 
most  other  middle  western  regions. 

2.  The  loess  soil  of  this  region  is  exceptionally  fertile  and 
exceptionally  productive. 

3.  Yields  are  good  on  the  well-cared-for  orchards. 

4.  Although  Ben  Davis  and  Gano  predominate,  considerable 
importance  is  being  given  to  Jonathan  and  Winesap  plantings 
which  do  very  well  in  this  region. 

Disadvantages. 

1.  Fungous  diseases  are  more  or  less  prevalent. 

2.  Unfavorable  weather  conditions  at  blooming  time  are  not 
uncommon. 


Locality  and  Site  for  the  Commercial  Orchard     109 

3.  The  region  is  not  entirely  free  from  many  old  and  neglected 
orchards,  particularly  throughout  northwestern  Missouri. 

4.  The  bulk  handling  of  a  large  part  of  the  crop  does  not 
encourage  high  uniform  grades. 

WESTERN  SLOPE  OF  COLORADO 

In  this  region  are  included  Mesa,  Montrose  and  Delta  counties. 

Advantages. 

1.  This    enjoys    the   advantage   of   being   closer   to   eastern 
markets  than  the  other  boxed  apple  regions. 

2.  Although  the  orchard  land  is  somewhat  spotted,  high  qual- 
ity fruit  and  good  yields  are  possible  in  favorable  seasons. 

3.  Facilities  for  handling  and  marketing  the  crop  are  fairly 
well  developed. 

Disadvantages. 

1.  Much  unsuitable  land  has  been  planted  and  exploited  to 
the  disadvantage  of  the  incautious  investor. 

2.  This  region  includes  some  very  fine  orchards  and  at  the 
same  time  some  very  poor  ones,  making  generalities  very  difficult. 

3.  The  average  yields- are  not  as  high  as  in  the  Northwest. 

4.  Frost-injury  in  the  spring  occasionally  causes  heavy  loss, 
particularly  in  the  Grand  Valley.     The  menace  of  the  codlin- 
moth  is  another  factor  which  should  be  considered  by  the  pros- 
pective investor. 

5.  Alkali  seep  has  destroyed  entire  areas  of  orchard  lands  in 
certain  localities,  particularly  in  parts  of  the  Grand  Valley. 

6.  Distance  from  market. 

UTAH 

Commercial  apples  in  Utah  are  produced  almost  entirely  in 
the  irrigated  valleys  along  the  western  slope  of  the  Wasatch 
Mountains.  Important  counties  are  Boxelder,  Weber,  Davis 
and  Utah,  which  include  many  commercial  apple  plantings. 
Conditions  are  somewhat  variable,  but  in  the  main  the  advant- 
ages are: 


110  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

1.  A  somewhat  greater  local  demand  for  apples  than  occurs  in 
the  Northwest. 

2.  Lower  orchard  values. 

3.  Good  quality  fruit  and  considerable  young  acreage. 

Disadvantages. 

1.  In  some  instances  unsuited  land  has  been  set  to  apple  trees 
and  conditions  are  variable. 

2.  Annual  yields,  although  very  good,  are  somewhat  less  than 
in  the  Yakima  and  Wenatchee  valleys. 

3.  The  limited  size  of  the  industry  does  not  permit  of  the 
development  of  marketing  facilities  such   as  may  prevail  in 
heavier  producing  regions. 

4.  Frost  damage  is  occasionally  severe. 

IDAHO 

Heaviest  commercial  apple  plantings  in  Idaho  are  in  the 
Payette  and  Boise  valleys,  tributary  to  such  towns  as  Payette, 
Fruitland,  Caldwell  and  Boise.  The  advantages  of  this  region 
are: 

1.  Young  acreage,  very  little  of  which  has  attained  full  bear- 
ing and  most  of  which  is  relatively  free  from  insects  and 


2.  Quality  of  the  fruit  is  excellent,  particularly  Jonathan, 
which  is  the  leading  variety. 

3.  Yields  are  good,  but  somewhat  lower  than  in  the  Yakima 
and  Wenatchee  regions. 

4.  Orchard  values  are  somewhat  lower  than  in  some  of  the 
other  northwestern  orchard  sections.     The  region  described  is 
a  very  good  general  farming  section,  having  a  rich  soil  which 
responds  well  to  irrigation,  a  universal  practice. 

Disadvantages. 

1.  Some  unsuited  land  was  developed  and  exploited  with  apple 
plantings. 

2.  Frost  damage  has  almost  entirely  destroyed  the  crop  of 
this  region  in  certain  years. 


Locality  and  Site  for  the  Commercial  Orchard     111 

3.  Distance  from  market  is  a  severe  handicap. 

4.  Some  alkali  trouble  in  the  lower  lands. 

The  Twin  Falls  irrigated  region  in  the  extreme  southern  part 
of  the  state  is  a  very  fertile  general  farming  country,  with  con- 
siderable apple  plantings,  some  of  which  have  been  pulled  out 
in  recent  years.  Apple-growing  as  a  specialized  industry  is 
being  supplanted  by  greater  diversification. 

WASHINGTON 

Yakima  Valley 
Advantages. 

1.  Exceptionally  high  annual  yields  of  fine  marketable  fruit. 

2.  The  prevalence   of  good   commercial   and  heavy   bearing 
varieties. 

3.  Ideal  climatic  conditions. 

4.  Highly   centralized  plantings,  with   exceptional  facilities 
for  handling  and  storing  fruit. 

5.  Greater  possibilities  for  diversification  than  in  the  Wen- 
atchee  Valley. 

6.  Good  roads. 

7.  Freedom  from  fungous  diseases. 

8.  Exceptionally  high  class  of  people  engaged  in  the  fruit 
industry,  with  exceptionally  good  social  conditions. 

Disadvantages. 

1.  Land  values  very  high. 

2.  Irrigation  necessary. 

3.  Excessive  distance  to  market. 

4.  Heavy  infestation  of  codlin-moth. 

5.  Fire-blight  prevalent,  particularly  among  Esopus   (Spitz- 
enburg)  trees. 

6.  Many  farms  do  not  permit  of  any  diversification. 

Wenatchee 

Advantages  and  disadvantages  in  the  Wenatchee  Valley  are 
in  the  main  identical  with  those  in  the  Yakima  Valley.  Yields 
in  Wenatchee  are  somewhat  higher  and  the  percentage  of  extra 


112  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

fancy  and  •  fancy  fruit  will  run  somewhat  higher.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  limited  area  in  the  Wenatchee  district  will  not  permit 
of  the  diversification  possible  in  the  Yakima  Valley.  Fire- 
blight  has  not  caused  serious  loss  to  the  Wenatchee  growers. 
In  general,  land  values  for  the  Wenatchee  Valley  are  somewhat 
higher  than  in  Yakima.  Frost  damage  at  blooming  time  in  the 
Wenatchee  Valley  is  almost  unknown  and  heavy  annual  crops 
are  fairly  certain.  Considerable  difficulty  is  often  experienced 
in  getting  the  fruit  to  market  in  the  fall. 

Spokane  district 

Many  of  the  same  advantages  and  disadvantages  prevail  in  the 
Spokane  district  as  in  the  Yakima  and  Wenatchee.  However,  a 
greater  proportion  of  unsuited  land  is  planted  to  trees  in 
Spokane  County  than  in  either  the  Yakima  or  the  Wenatchee 
district;  the  yields  are  generally  lower  and  more  uncertain; 
frost-injury  is  more  frequent;  and  fungous  diseases  are  more 
prevalent.  While  nearly  as  many  acres  have  been  set  in 
Spokane  County  as  in  Yakima  County,  a  considerable  percent- 
age of  this  acreage  was  planted  on  non-irrigated  and  less  pro- 
ductive soil  than  is  in  the  Yakima  and  Wenatchee  Valleys. 


Commercial  plantings  in  Montana  were  largely  centralized 
in  the  Bitter  Root  Valley  which  suffered  considerable  over- 
development. Many  boom  projects  were  planted  which  never 
attained  commercial  bearing.  The  region  is  adapted  to  growing 
of  Mclntosh  apples ;  the  elevation  is  high ;  frosts  are  not  uncom- 
mon and  the  trees  do  not  attain  the  size,  nor  do  they  produce 
the  high  annual  crops  that  are  common  in  many  of  the  other 
northwest  irrigated  regions. 

OREGON 

Hood  River 
Advantages. 

1.  High-grade  varieties  such  as  Yellow  Newtown  and  Esopus 
(Spitzenburg)  predominate. 


Locality  and  Site  for  the  Commercial  Orchard     113 

2.  A    high   class    of   persons   is    engaged   in   fruit-growing; 
climate  is  delightful;  scenery  beautiful  and  social  conditions 
good. 

3.  Centralized  planting. 

4.  Good  storage  and  shipping  facilities. 

5.  Fruit  very  well  known  and  widely  advertised. 

6.  Prices  received  for  output  relatively  high. 

Disadvantages. 

1.  High  land  values. 

2.  Little  opportunity  for  diversification. 

3.  Yields  much  lower  than  the  average  for  the  Wenatchee  and 
Yakimai  valleys. 

4.  Apple-scab  bad  in  certain  years. 

5.  Distance  from  market. 

Rogue  River  Valley 
Advantages. 

1.  Climatic  and  social  conditions  ideal;  beautiful  scenery. 

2.  Good  roads  and  centralized  planting. 

Disadvantages. 

1.  Drought  has  greatly  reduced  the  crop  in  certain  years, 
although  irrigation  is  being  adopted  in  some  sections. 

2.  Land  values  relatively  high. 

3.  Adapted  to  pear-  rather  than  apple-growing. 

4.  Frost-injury  occasional. 

5.  Yields  low. 

6.  Distance  from  market. 


CALIFORNIA 

Watsonville  district  (Santa  Cruz  and  Monterey  counties). 
Advantages. 

1.  Heavy  annual  yields,  particularly  where  orchards  have  been 
grown  in  the  heavy  "  redwood "  soils. 


114  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

2.  Marketable  quality  of  fruit  good,  but  lower  than  in  the 
Northwest. 

3.  Good  shipping  and  storing  facilities,  also  good  roads. 

4.  Very  centralized  planting,  practically  all  within  ten  miles 
of  Watsonville. 

5.  Cost  production  of  apples  relatively  low. 

6.  Good    varieties   grown,    consisting   almost   exclusively   of 
Yellow  Newtown  and  Yellow  Bellflower. 

7.  No  irrigation  required. 

8.  Highly  developed  dried  apple  industry. 

Disadvantages. 

1.  Internal  browning,   a   physiological  disease,   prevalent   in 
Yellow  Newtown  apples  in  certain  years,  detracts  from  storing 
qualities  of  this  leading  variety. 

2.  Cooperative  movement  among  growers  working  for  high 
grades  and  better  marketing  facilities  has  not  been  as  great  as 
in  many  of  the  northwest  apple-growing  regions. 

3.  Lack  of  effort  towards  establishment  of  high  grades  has 
resulted  in  a  lower  price  received  for  the  fruit  than  for  the  same 
variety  grown  in  such  regions  as  the  Hood  River  Valley. 

4.  Rural  social  conditions  are  inferior  to  those  found  in  the 
newer  regions  of  the  Northwest. 

5.  Distance  from  eastern  markets. 


Sevastopol  section  (Sonoma  County) 

Advantages. 

1.  Particularly  adapted  to  the  production  of  Gravenstein,  a 
profitable  variety. 

2.  Relatively  free  from  serious  insect  and  disease  injury. 

3.  Local  demand  for  output  tends  to  offset  the  great  distance 
from  eastern  markets. 

4.  Highly  developed  dried  apple  industry 

5.  Cooperative  and  community  spirit  apparent  in  most  of  the 
apple-growers. 


Locality  and  Site  for  the  Commercial  Orchard     115 

Disadvantages. 

1.  Yields  more  uncertain  and  somewhat  lighter  than  in  the 
Watsonville  section. 

2.  Distance  from  eastern  markets. 

NEW   MEXICO 

Although  some  commercial  apple  plantings  are  found  in  the 
Kio  Grande  Valley  and  in  the  Fannington  district  in  San  Juan 
County  in  the  extreme  northwestern  part  of  the  state,  interest 
in  New  Mexico  centers  chiefly  in  the  Pecos  Valley  where  the 
heaviest  apple  plantings  are  in  Chaves  County  in  the  vicinity  of 
Roswell.  The  advantages  of  this  county  are: 

1.  Acreage  is  young,  in  many  cases  well  cared  for  and  capable 
of  producing  high  quality  fruit  in  favorable  seasons. 

2.  Proximity  to  Texas  markets,  particularly  advantageous  for 
the  Jonathan  crop  which  matures  earlier  than  in  the  Northwest. 

Disadvantages. 

1.  Occasional  frost-injury  which  destroys  large  portions  of  the 
crop. 

2.  Lighter  yields  than  in  many  of  the  northwest  irrigated 
sections. 

3.  Region  difficult  of  access. 

The  above  discussion  of  some  of  the  advantages  and 
disadvantages  common  to  the  more  important  apple  re- 
gions will  serve  in  a  general  way  to  outline  briefly  the 
conditions  to  be  expected  in  different  parts  of  the  United 
States.  It  is  not  to  be  considered  complete  and  is  un- 
doubtedly inapplicable  to  many  individual  cases. 

The  purchase  of  a  farm  is  one  which  requires  more  in- 
tensive study  and  consideration  than  such  generalizations 
as  have  been  given.  The  long  period  of  years  required 
to  bring  an  orchard  to  full  bearing  signifies  a  long  term  of 
ownership.  Fruit-growing  is  not  entirely  comparable  with 


116  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

general  farming  and  as  is  the  case  with  all  specialized 
industries  the  inexperienced  individual  is  at  somewhat  of 
a  disadvantage  in  passing  on  the  relative  merits  of  dif- 
ferent investments. 

CHOOSING    THE    SITE    FOR   A    FRUIT-FARM 

In  the  purchase  of  a  fruit-farm,  the  prospective  in- 
vestor should  keep  many  points  in  mind.  In  the  following 
discussion,  the  more  important  points  will  be  considered 
in  the  purchase  or  selection  of  a  site  for  an  apple  orchard. 

Raw  versus  planted  land. 

The  first  problem  is  whether  to  purchase  a  bearing 
orchard  or  to  buy  raw  land  and  set  trees.  The  relative 
cheapness  of  undeveloped  land  is  usually  a  most  attrac- 
tive feature  and  the  investor  very  often  overlooks  the  fact 
that  it  requires  from  eight  to  ten  years  in  irrigated  sec- 
tions and  from  twelve  to  fifteen  years  in  non-irrigated 
districts  for  an  apple  orchard  to  attain  real  commercial 
bearing.  If  the  investor  has  other  income  or  can  afford 
to  wait  for  returns,  the  planting  of  an  orchard  in  a  favor- 
able locality  will  usually  prove  profitable. 

Buying  raw  land  in  the  hope  of  paying  for  its  develop- 
ment and  of  making  a  living  at  the  same  time  by  farming 
between  the  rows  is  seldom  feasible.  No  definite  recom- 
mendations can  be  made  to  fit  all  cases,  but  as  a  rule 
the  more  profitable  ventures  result  from  the  investment  of 
at  least  a  part  of  the  available  capital  in  bearing  orchard. 
Very  often  adjoining  raw  land  may  be  purchased  which 
can  be  set  to  trees  if  the  owner  desires  to  extend  his 
plantings. 


Locality  and  Site  for  the  Commercial  Orchard     117 

Time  to  buy. 

The  time  to  buy  is  usually  when  every  one  wants  to 
sell,  although  this  does  not  determine  the  relative  merits 
of  the  different  purchases.  The  place  to  t>uy  is  in  a  rec- 
ognized fruit  region.  Apple-growing  is  an  established 
industry  and  one  which  will  prove  profitable  over  a  long 
period  of  years,  but  which  may  not  pay  for  a  short  period. 
No  farming  enterprise  has  experienced  the  ups  and  downs 
of  fruit-growing.  The  men  who  made  money  were  those 
who,  through  far-sightedness  or  good  fortune,  invested 
when  the  tide  was  low  and  who  remained  in  the  business. 
A  period  of  good  years  will  always  follow  one  of  poor 
years,  and  the  fact  that  apple  production  is  not  highly 
sensitive  to  demand  protects  the  man  who  invests  at  the 
proper  time.  For  example,  the  total  acreage  set  to  apple 
trees  in  the  decade  1910  to  1920  has  been  small  con- 
sidering the  United  States  as  a  whole.  It  would  appear 
from  this  that  the  present  apple-growers  are  approaching 
a  period  of  prosperity.  The  cyclic  tendencies  of  apple- 
growing  are  exceedingly  important  from  the  investor's 
standpoint,  and  much  depends  on  the  particular  time 
that  an  investment  is  made. 

Syndicate  projects. 

Investment  in  syndicate  farms  or  large  orchard  pro- 
jects has  been  discussed  elsewhere.  It  has  been  the  obser- 
vation of  the  writers  that  syndicate  farming  of  any  kind, 
on  any  type  of  soil  where  the  owner  does  not  directly  over- 
see the  operations,  is  seldom  successful.  The  same  is 
true  to  a  great  extent  for  large  orchard  projects.  Pros- 
pective investors  would  do  well  to  avoid  strictly  all  so- 


118  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

called  orchard  projects,  particularly  those  in  which  the 
tracts  are  to  be  managed  by  promoters  and  turned  over 
to  the  purchaser  after  a  period  of  years.  The  purchase 
of  slightly  run-down  orchards  at  reasonable  prices  has 
often  resulted  in  good  returns,  particularly  when  the 
trees  are  of  good  varieties.  The  question  of  renovation 
will  receive  separate  treatment. 

Yields  and  varieties. 

Separate  chapters  are  devoted  to  the  discussion  of  yields 
and  to  the  selection  of  varieties.  Before  choosing  a  farm, 
both  of  these  points  should  be  carefully  considered.  Re- 
liable performance  records  over  a  period  of  five  years 
will  indicate  the  relative  productivity  of  different  varieties 
on  typical  orchards  of  any  given  region.  This  is  a  far 
more  reliable  guide  than  to  judge  productivity  by  the 
apparent  size  and  vigor  of  the  trees.  A  few  well-known 
commercial  varieties  adapted  to  the  district  are  always 
to  be  desired.  Phenomenal  yields  occur  at  times  in  nearly 
every  region,  therefore  the  average  rather  than  the  maxi- 
mum should  be  sought  as  a  basis  for  calculation.  The 
biennial  bearing  is  fairly  well  pronounced  in  most  regions 
and  the  lean  years  must  always  be  considered. 

Proximity  to  market. 

In  years  of  low  prices  the  marginal  regions  or  those 
remote  from  market  suffer  most  keenly,  since  freight  rates 
consume  an  inordinate  proportion  of  the  returns.  This 
should  not  be  overlooked  when  one  contemplates  buying 
an  orchard  at  a  great  distance  from  market.  Exception- 
ally high  yields  and  excellent  quality  of  the  fruit  may 


Locality  and  Site  for  the  Commercial  Orchard     119 

overcome  in  a  measure  the  burden  of  heavy  freight  charges. 
Thus  two  of  the  most  extensive  apple-growing  regions  in 
the  United  States  have  developed  in  Washington,  many 
hundreds  of  miles  from  the  primary  apple  markets.  The 
freight  on  apples  from  the  Yakima  and  Wenatchee  valleys 
represents  a  very  considerable  item.  Granting  such  no- 
table exceptions,  great  distance  from  market  must  always 
be  viewed  as  a  decided  handicap.  Losses  incident  to  car 
shortage,  damage  in  shipment  and  difficulties  due  to  long 
range  business  transactions  are  always  emphasized  under 
such  conditions.  Kailroad  facilities,  advantages  of  com- 
petitive systems,  and  the  possibility  of  boat  shipping  are 
worthy  of  careful  consideration. 

Distance  from  shipping  station. 

Improved  roads  and  automobile  trucks  are  making  long 
hauls  more  economical  and  yet  the  distance  from  the  or- 
chard to  the  shipping  station  is  a  most  important  factor 
in  determining  the  price  of  land.  The  investor  can  af- 
ford to  pay  considerably  more  for  orchard  land  near  a 
shipping  station.  Investigations  in  1914  on  179  farms  in 
the  Hood  River  Valley  and  in  western  Colorado  indicate 
that  the  average  cost  of  hauling  the  shooks  to  the  farm 
and  the  packed  fruit  to  the  station  represents  approxi- 
mately one  cent  a  bushel  for  each  mile.  The  cost  to-day, 
however,  is  about  two  cents. 

Taking  this  present  figure  in  considering  an  orchard 
yielding  225  bushels  or  75  barrels  to  the  acre,  each  addi- 
tional mile  in  the  distance  from  the  shipping  station 
would  represent  in  these  two  items  alone  an  annual  cost  of 
$4.50  an  acre,  or  $45  an  acre  where  the  distance  was  ten 
miles.  The  cost  of  hauling  other  supplies  has  not  been 


120  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

considered,  nor  the  social  proximity  to  towns  and  cities. 
Furthermore,  possible  injury  to  fruit  subjected  to  exces- 
sively long  hauls  over  rough  roads  is  not  an  unimportant 
feature. 

In  considering  long  hauls  to  shipping  stations,  it  is 
interesting  to  note  that  in  the  Piedmont  section  of  Virginia 
not  infrequently  a  load  of  Albemarle  Pippins  may  be 
hauled  thirty  miles  over  rough  mountain  roads.  In  the 
mountains  of  Xorth  Carolina  and  Georgia  one  may  see  a 
mountain  schooner  laden  with  apples  en  route  to  a  town 
some  seventy-five  miles  distant.  The  latter  somewhat 
commonplace  occurrence  is  usually  in  complete  disregard 
of  any  existing  railroad  facilities.  In  many  of  these  more 
remote  regions  oxen  furnish  the  motive  power.  In  such 
regions  a  three-  or  four-day  trip  to  town  with  a  load  of 
apples  takes  more  the  form  of  an  outing  and  cost  produc- 
tion is  irrelevant. 

Unfortunately,  long  hauls  and  poor  roads  commonly 
go  together.  As  roads  improve  and  automobile  trucks 
come  into  more  common  use,  distances  to  stations  will  as- 
sume less  importance.  At  present  the  prospective  investor 
should  consider  it  highly  desirable  to  have  less  than  a 
six-mile  haul. 

Bearing  age  of  trees. 

In  considering  the  purchase  of  a  very  young  orchard, 
one  should  not  be  misled  by  exaggerated  accounts  of  early 
bearing.  The  age  at  which  trees  come  into  full  bearing  is 
somewhat  variable,  depending  on  the  variety  and  the 
region.  Statements  regarding  the  large  annual  yields 
which  may  be  expected  from  five-  and  six-year-old  trees 
are  largely  untrue.  Occasionally  trees  of  this  age  bear 


Locality  and  Site  for  the  Commercial  Orchard     121 

considerable  fruit,  but  in  buying  young  acreage  one  should 
seldom  figure  that  an  orchard  will  attain  even  fair  com- 
mercial bearing  before  eight  years  for  irrigated  sections 
or  ten  to  twelve  years  for  non-irrigated  districts.  The  age 
at  which  trees  cease  to  be  profitable  depends  somewhat  on 
the  region,  but  more  on  the  care  and  variety.  Most  of  the 
bearing  orchards  in  western  New  York  are  forty  or  more 
years  old  and  some  remain  profitable  at  fifty  and  even 
sixty  years.  These  trees  have  received  moderately  good 
care.  Those  which  have  been  allowed  to  break  down,  to 
become  infected  with  disease  and  insect  pests,  and  which 
have  not  received  proper  cultural  treatment  have  long  since 
passed  out  of  profitable  bearing. 

The  matter  of  longevity  is  often  brought  up  in  con- 
nection with  investment  in  irrigated  orchards.  The 
question  is  asked  whether  irrigated  trees  forced  into  early 
bearing  will  be  profitable  at  the  end  of  fifty  years  as  is 
the  case  with  some  New  York  orchards.  Early  maturity 
usually  indicates  shorter  life.  If  the  western  growers 
would  maintain  fertility  by  cover-crops  and  by  the  appli- 
cation of  fertilizer  in  quantities  commensurate  with  crop 
production,  the  .drain  on  soil  fertility  would  be  largely 
offset.  Greater  care  and  protection  given  the  trees 
against  insects  and  diseases  will  also  have  an  important 
influence  on  the  life  of  the  trees  in  these  intensive  regions. 
Since  practically  all  the  commercial  orchards  on  irri- 
gated land  have  been  set  out  in  the  past  twenty-five  years, 
there  are  no  concrete  examples  as  a  basis  for  comparison. 

In  speculating  on  the  longevity  of  the  irrigated  orchards, 
it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  present  plan  of  close  planting 
must  be  greatly  modified  to  meet  the  increased  size  of 
the  trees.  At  present  the  average  planting  distance  is 


122  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

under  thirty  feet  An  ultimate  removal  of  one-third  to 
one-half  of  the  trees  seems  almost  unavoidable.  Even 
under  such  circumstances  it  hardly  seems  probable  that 
the  western  irrigated  orchards  will  remain  in  profitable 
bearing  as  long,  for  example,  as  the  western  New  York 
orchards,  the  reason  being  not  the  longevity  of  the  trees 
so  much  as  the  necessity  for  producing  the  highest  grade 
fruit.  The  success  of  western  irrigated  orchards  has  been 
in  the  marketable  superiority  of  its  fruit.  High  quality 
fruit  is  more  easily  produced  on  young  trees  and  it  seems 
probable  that  the  western  grower  will  be  inclined  to  aban- 
don older  orchards  and  set  new  trees  which  quickly  come 
into  bearing  under  his  system  of  orchard  management. 

Diseases  and  insect  pests. 

Several  commercial  apple  regions  have  entirely  passed 
out  of  existence  on  account  of  the  prevalence  of  certain 
insects  and  diseases.  A  bewildering  list  of  insects  and 
diseases  might  be  suggested  to  the  prospective  investor 
since  each  locality  has  a  special  number  of  pests  which 
are  more  or  less  serious.  This  subject  is  treated  more 
fully  in  Chapter  X. 

In  most  regions  spraying  enters  very  materially  into 
the  cost  of  production,  representing  in  some  cases  over 
12  per  cent  of  all  costs.  This  figure,  however,  is  only 
an  item  of  expense.  It  in  no  way  indicates  the  loss  in 
fruit  or  injury  to  trees  which  may  result  from  the  depre- 
dation of  prevalent  orchard  pests. 

The  prospective  investor  would  do  well  to  study  the 
spraying  program  of  the  locality  which  he  is  considering 
and  inform  himself  as  to  the  number  and  character  of  the 
applications  necessary  to  the  production  of  high  marketable 


Locality  and  Site  for  the  Commercial  Orchard      123 

quality  fruit.  There  may  be  a  great  variation  even  among 
orchards  in  the  same  locality.  Once  pests  have  gained  a 
foothold  in  an  orchard,  their  eradication  may  be  an  ex- 
pensive process.  Newly  developed  regions  with  young 
trees  are  as  a  rule  singularly  free  from  insects  and  disease. 
They  are  not  guaranteed  immune,  however,  for  sooner  or 
later  the  pests  which  might  be  expected  to  thrive  under 
such  conditions  usually  appear.  Vigilance  in  controlling 
early  infection  will  very  materially  reduce  later  loss. 

Some  pests  are  very  much  more  expensive  to  control 
than  others.  Apple-scab,  apple-blotch,  and  bitter-rot  are 
serious  fungous  diseases  which  the  prospective  purchaser 
should  keep  in  mind,  not  that  they  should  be  absolutely 
avoided,  for  one  or  more  appears  in  many  very  important 
regions,  but  that  their  degree  of  prevalence  should  be  con- 
sidered. It  makes  a  difference  whether  one  or  two  fun- 
gicide applications  will  suffice  for  their  control  or  whether 
five  or  six  may  be  necessary.  In  some  regions  one  spray 
controls  codlin-moth,  in  others  six  to  seven  applications 
may  be  required. 

A  careful  inspection  of  an  orchard  at  harvest  time  will 
usually  reveal  the  loss  in  fruit  which  may  be  expected 
from  insects  and  diseases,  although  in  some  instances  and 
particularly  with  fungous  diseases,  the  extent  of  the  in- 
jury varies  widely  in  different  seasons. 

Climatic  influences. 

Climatic  influences  should  be  carefully  considered  in 
relation  to  the  purchase  of  a  fruit-farm.  The  critical 
period  for  the  apple  crop  is  at  the  time  the  trees  are  in 
bloom.  Frost-injury  to  the  blossoms  or  damp  rainy 
weather  to  prevent  pollination  are  the  most  frequent 


124  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

causes  of  crop  failures.  Official  weather  reports  will  as- 
sist the  investor  in  determining  whether  damp  rainy 
weather  and  days  of  low  temperature  are  common  during 
the  blooming  period.  A  commercial  project  embracing 
several  thousand  acres  of  orchard  land  has  developed  in 
a  region  where  frost  occurs  in  practically  every  month  of 
the  year  and  where  the  minimum  temperature  during  the 
blossoming  time  clearly  indicates  that  frost-injury  is  un- 
avoidable. An  occasional  dip  in  temperature  to  a  point 
slightly  below  freezing  does  not  necessarily  signify  exces- 
sive frost-injury,  but  recurring  temperature  at  this  criti- 
cal period  of  27°  F.  or  lower  is  significant  of  probable 
injury. 

The  question  of  a  particular  site  within  a  given  region 
very  often  has  an  important  bearing  on  susceptibility  to 
frost-injury.  A  north  or  northeastern  slope  is  usually 
preferred  on  account  of  its  tendency  to  retard  growth  in  the 
spring  until  danger  has  passed.  Frost-injury  is  extremely 
erratic  at  times,  striking  here  and  there  in  an  almost  in- 
explicable manner.  A  fatal  temperature  on  one  occa- 
sion may  result  in  very  slight  damage  at  other  times. 
Other  things  being  equal,  higher  elevation  is  preferable 
on  account  of  better  air  drainage,  and  also  soil  drainage. 
The  tendency  of  cold  air  to  settle  from  high  to  lower  land 
makes  pockets  and  valleys  without  broad  outlets  compara- 
tively dangerous.  An  example  is  afforded  in  the  Rogue 
River  Valley  near  Medford,  Oregon.  The  orchards  on  the 
higher  land,  known  as  the  foothill  orchards,  are  much  less 
susceptible  to  frost-injury  than  those  on  the  floor  of  the 
valley;  sufficiently  so  that  the  practice  of  smudging,  still 
common  in  the  latter  orchards,  has  been  largely  discon- 
tinued on  the  foothills. 


Locality  and  Site  for  the  Commercial  Orchard     125 

Damp  rainy  weather  at  blossoming  time  may  be  even  a 
more  serious  factor  than  frost,  since  it  prevents  insect 
activity  in  pollination;  furthermore,  it  interferes  greatly 
with  necessary  spraying  operations.  Such  unfavorable 
weather  conditions  often  exist  throughout  the  Middle 
West  at  blooming  time.  Hail  injury  and  loss  by  heavy 
windstorms  are  much  more  prevalent  in  certain  regions 
than  in  others.  While  personal  investigation  of  the  im- 
portant points  is  necessary,  reference  to  official  weather 
records  will  prove  an  invaluable  guide.  Meteorologists 
agree  that  climate  does  not  change,  but  state  that  it  may 
run  in  cycles.  A  study  of  a  several  year  period  is,  there- 
fore, advisable. 

Size  of  farm. 

The  size  of  farm  to  buy  depends  on  whether  apple-grow- 
ing is  to  be  the  sole  or  only  one  of  several  important  enter- 
prises. A  discussion  of  farm  organizations  has  been  given 
elsewhere.  An  orchard  of  less  than  fifteen  acres  even  in 
the  most  intensive  regions  seems  hardly  advisable,  since 
the  overhead  for  equipment  and  general  supervision  would 
scarcely  permit  economical  management  of  a  smaller 
acreage;  furthermore,  the  gross  income  would  necessarily 
limit  very  large  returns.  The  average  farm  in  the  inten- 
sive irrigated  sections  is  scarcely  over  ten  acres  and  twenty 
acres  is  often  considered  more  than  one  man  can  handle. 
There  is  a  surprising  relation  between  the  maximum  yields 
and  limited  acreage,  particularly  for  the  farmer  who 
diversifies.  In  other  words,  a  small  acreage  well  cared 
for  very  often  gives  a  greater  total  production  than  a  much 
larger  acreage.  For  the  intensive  apple-grower,  an  annual 
production  of  at  least  5,000  bushels  is  necessary  to  insure 


126  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

a  fair  labor  income.  The  acreage  will  of  course  vary  with 
the  regions.  For  the  more  general  farmer,  the  size  of 
the  orchard  should  be  governed  by  the  acreage  to  which 
careful  attention  can  be  given.  Ten  acres  or  even  less  may 
be  advisable  since  an  orchard  very  often  suffers  from  a 
pressure  of  other  farm  work.  The  day  of  poorly  cared 
for  commercial  orchards  has  passed. 

Necessary  capital. 

All  available  capital  should  not  be  invested  in  raw  land 
for  planting  or  in  non-bearing  orchards.  The  more  or 
less  hazardous  nature  of  specialized  farming  emphasizes 
the  need  for  sufficient  capital  to  tide  the  farmer  over  the 
poor  years.  The  fruit-grower  must  follow  a  far-sighted 
policy  if  he  is  to  maintain  his  orchard  in  a  high  state  of 
productivity.  Such  a  policy  requires  considerable  expen- 
diture at  times  when  there  may  be  no  returns.  If  the 
trees  are  allowed  to  suffer  one  year,  the  effect  may  be 
noticeable  for  many  years  to  come.  Neglected  orchards 
are  explained  in  many  instances  by  the  owners  not  actually 
having  available  capital  to  meet  necessary  expenses.  It 
is  not  because  they  fail  to  recognize  the  wisdom  and  im- 
portance of  careful  spraying,  pruning  and  the  like,  but 
rather  because  immediate  needs  for  living  expenses  must 
receive  first  consideration. 

Specialized  apple-growing  can  not  be  undertaken  suc- 
cessfully on  the  small  margin  which  suffices  for  general 
farming.  In  other  words,  the  investor  who  expects  to 
devote  himself  exclusively  to  apple-growing  should  have 
several  thousand  dollars  or  outside  income  in  order  that  he 
may  safely  buy  and  operate  a  farm  sufficiently  large  to 
yield  a  good  labor  income.  Nothing  less  than  a  50  per 


Locality  and  Site  for  the  Commercial  Orchard     127 

cent  payment  should  be  considered  as  a  safe  margin  in 
buying  a  full  bearing  orchard.  For  a  non-bearing  orchard, 
the  buyer  must  carefully  figure  the  outlay  required  to 
bring  the  trees  to  full  bearing  and  also  his  living  expenses 
for  the  meantime.  Inter-crops  may  help  to  defray  some 
of  the  running  expenses,  although  there  is  a  tendency  to 
over-estimate  income  from  this  source. 

This  leads  to  a  discussion  of  the  amount  of  money  which 
the  investor  may  expect  to  borrow  when  apple  land  is 
given  for  security.  Attractive  'terms  often  may  be  se- 
cured at  the  time  of  purchase,  particularly  when  the 
owner  is  anxious  to  sell  or  is  getting  a  good  price  for  his 
land.  In  such  cases  the  purchaser  may  not  require  addi- 
tional capital  beyond  his  first  payment.  However,  if  he 
is  obliged  to  seek  credit  from  a  banker,  he  may  be  sur- 
prised to  learn  that  apple  trees  are  not  always  considered 
a  permanent  improvement  and  in  such  cases  appraisals  for 
loans  are  based  on  the  value  of  the  land  for  general 
crops.  Such  has  been  the  decision  rendered  by  the  Fed- 
eral Loan  Board  in  establishing  a  basis  for  loans  on  fruit 
lands  throughout  the  country.  Individuals  may  of  course 
show  a  different  attitude,  considering  that  although  the 
fruit-trees  may  not  be  considered  permanent  improvement, 
the  land  may  have  a  greater  value  on  account  of  its 
ability  to  produce  exceptionally  fine  fruit.  Credit  will 
always  retain  much  of  the  personal  element  and  will 
vary  with  the  prosperity  of  the  apple  industry.  Further- 
more, cooperation  among  growers  and  the  influences  tend- 
ing to  stabilize  the  industry  may  be  expected  to  reflect 
materially  on  credit  and  current  interest  rates. 

For  the  farmer  with  less  than  several  thousand  dol- 
lars' capital  or  who  does  not  wish  to  devote  himself  ex- 


128  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

clusively  to  apple-growing,  the  selection  of  a  more  general 
farm  in  a  recognized  apple  section  where  land  values  are 
not  too  high,  will  afford  an  opportunity  of  gradually  work- 
ing into  the  apple  industry.  A  small  bearing  orchard 
would  serve  as  a  nucleus  and  the  returns  from  it  could  be 
used  in  developing  additional  plantings.  Furthermore, 
the  experience  grained  from  caring  for  the  older  orchard 
would  be  profitable  as  a  guide  for  the  development  of  more 
acreage.  A  100-  to  200-acre  farm  with  five  to  twenty 
acres  of  well-cared-for  apple  trees  is  a  good  arrangement 
and  one  which  would  have  the  advantage  of  safety,  better 
credit  and  lower  interest  rates.  The  farmer's  living  ex- 
penses could  be  secured  from  the  general  farm  land,  leav- 
ing him  independent  of  his  apple  crop  in  years  of  failure. 

Labor  conditions. 

Labor  conditions  may  affect  greatly  the  advisability  of 
choosing  a  fruit-farm  in  certain  localities.  Labor  costs 
in  some  instances  exceed  50  per  cent  of  the  total  cost  of 
producing  apples,  exclusive  of  interest  on  investments. 
Much  of  this  labor  is  performed  by  the  grower  himself, 
although  at  harvest  time  and  with  such  intensive  opera- 
tions as  spraying  and  thinning,  the  character  and  price 
of  available  labor  is  very  important.  A  study  of  the  scale 
of  wages  for  orchard  labor  reveals  a  disparagement  of  50 
per  cent  between  different  regions.  Beginning  with  the 
low  wage  scale  in  southern  states,  labor  rates  increase 
and  are  at  their  highest  in  the  Northwest. 

The  amount  of  work  done  in  a  day  enters  into  all  cal- 
culations and  cheap  labor  may  be  the  most  expensive 
in  the  end.  For  example,  the  average  picker  in  the  North- 
west picks  about  twice  as  many  apples  as  the  average 


Locality  and  Site  for  the  Commercial  Orchard     129 

southern  laborer.  The  losses  incident  to  a  scarcity  of 
labor  at  harvest  time,  when  all  the  fruit  may  be  lost  if 
not  picked  and  disposed  of  within  proper  season,  need  not 
be  emphasized.  The  subject  of  available  local  labor  sup- 
ply should  receive  careful  attention  by  the  investor. 

Social  conditions. 

A  factor  which  has  entered  very  materially  into  the 
development  of  most  commercial  apple  regions  is  the  ques- 
tion of  social  advantages.  One  should  carefully  consider 
social  conditions  before  investing  in  fruit  land.  Fruit- 
growing is  usually  looked  on  as  a  pleasurable  and  inter- 
esting pursuit.  Furthermore,  intensive  fruit  regions  are 
necessarily  thickly  settled  and  provide  social  advantages 
superior  to  those  in  the  average  rural  communities.  The 
desire  to  live  among  educated  persons  and  to  have  the 
advantages  of  excellent  schools  and  churches  and  means  of 
social  recreation  is  strong.  A  farm  in  a  community  where 
such  conditions  prevail  unquestionably  has  an  added  com- 
mercial value. 

Fruit-growing  has  always  attracted  city  people,  and  in 
specialized  fruit  regions  to-day  are  many  who,  after  re- 
tirement from  business,  sought  fruit-growing  as  a  health- 
ful vocation  and  yet  one  which  might  be  expected  to  offer 
fair  returns  on  investment.  If  one  seeks  an  isolated  loca- 
tion for  a  fruit-farm,  opportunities  for  converting  the 
property  into  cash  in  case  it  is  desirable  to  sell  will  be  few, 
since  the  class  of  persons  attracted  to  fruit-growing  will 
look  particularly  for  favorable  social  conditions.  Social 
advantages  should  not  completely  sway  one's  business 
judgment,  however,  and  should  enter  into  consideration 
as  only  one  of  a  number  of  important  factors. 


130  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

Regional  developments. 

Closely  allied  with  social  conditions  as  a  factor  in  influ- 
encing choice  of  a  farm  is  the  question  of  regional  devel- 
opment. The  advantages  of  a  centralized  industry  where 
all  are  interested  in  a  common  end  need  scarcely  be 
enumerated.  Within  this  category  will  come  all  the  bene- 
fits resulting  from  cooperation  and  community  effort. 
Shipping  and  storage  facilities,  sales  organizations  and 
availability  of  skilled  labor  may  be  mentioned  as  largely 
dependent  on  the  state  of  regional  development.  Buyers 
are  attracted  to  the  regions  where  fruit  may  be  purchased 
in  considerable  quantities.  The  reputation  of  a  region  for 
shipping  high  class  fruit  has  much  to  do  with  the  selling 
price  of  the  individual's  crop.  Western  New  York,  Shen- 
andoah  and  Hood  River  are  names  which  immediately 
summon  to  the  buyer's  mind  a  fairly  well  denned  idea  of 
the  quality  and  variety  of  apples  grown  in  each  respective 
region.  The  difficulties  in  keeping  an  orchard  free  from 
pests  and  diseases  are  greatly  increased  in  a  community 
where  neglected  orchards  abound.  Furthermore,  if  the 
region  has  the  reputation  of  shipping  rather  poor  quality 
fruit,  the  grower  will  encounter  an  inherent  prejudice 
against  all  fruit  from  that  particular  section. 

Soil. 

No  other  item  should  receive  more  careful  consideration 
in  choosing  a  fruit-farm  than  the  question  of  soil.  Soil 
requirements  for  the  apple  yary  somewhat  with  the  variety, 
but  practically  all  authorities  agree  that  a  deep,  friable, 
loamy  soil  with  good  water  drainage,  describes  briefly  the 
soil  condition  to  which  the  apple  is  best  adapted.  This 


HBBBI 


PLATE  VIII.—  Upper,  Eight-foot  disk  in  operation  in  the 
Rogue  River  Valley,  Oregon,  showing  a  common  method  of  culti- 
vation. Lower,  Spring-tooth  harrow  in  use  in  a  northwest  or- 
chard. This  implement  is  very  generally  used  where  clean  culti- 
vation is  practiced. 


Locality  and  Site  for  the  Commercial  Orchard     131 

somewhat  general  description  will  imply  that  the  apple 
might  find  a  suitable  soil  habitat  in  almost  all  of  our 
better  general  farming  regions,  and  this  fact  is  attested  by 
the  very  wide  distribution  of  apple  plantings  throughout 
the  United  States. 

Good  drainage  and  soil  depth  are  prime  soil  requisites 
for  apple  land.  Natural  drainage  is  essential  since  the 
apple  tree  does  not  thrive  with  wet  feet.  A  subsoil  depth 
of  at  least  six  or  eight  feet  is  necessary  to  insure  proper 
root  development  and  a  sufficiently  large  water  reservoir. 
The  presence  of  hardpan,  ledges  of  rock,  or  similar  strata, 
within  a  few  feet  of  the  surface  tends  to  obstruct  root 
growth  and  the  capillary  movement  of  soil-moisture,  and 
for  this  reason  is  highly  undesirable,  if  not  prohibitive. 
Deep-rooted  leguminous  crops  such  as  alfalfa  may  remedy 
soil  defects  of  this  nature,  while  dynamiting  tree  holes  be- 
fore planting  can  be  depended  on  to  loosen  up  the  subsoil 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  It  is  much  safer,  however, 
to  avoid  all  shallow  soils  or  those  with  the  objectionable 
subsoil  strata.  In  one  widely  advertised  apple  region, 
dynamiting  all  tree  holes  before  planting  was  recom- 
mended and  universally  practiced.  All  the  trees  grew 
well  until  they  attained  four  or  five  years  of  age,  at  which 
tim6  the  root  system  began  to  permeate  soils  unaffected 
by  the  dynamite  and  the  result  was  a  greatly  checked 
growth.  It  would,  therefore,  seem  advisable  to  select  a 
soil  in  which  dynamiting  is  not  necessary,  although  the 
practice  may  be  beneficial  in  some  instances. 

In  non-irrigated  sections,  soil  depth  has  an  even  greater 
significance,  namely  in  the  conservation  of  soil-moisture 
against  drought.  The  importance  of  an  upward  movement 
of  moisture  by  capillarity  is  well  known.  If  an  imperme- 


132  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

able  stratum  obstructs  this  movement,  the  water-holding 
capacity  of  a  particular  soil  may  be  very  greatly  reduced. 
Furthermore,  when  heavy  rains  occur  in  the  spring,  this 
same  stratum  will  prevent  the  downward  course  of  the 
moisture  and  cause  the  condition  known  as  wet  feet. 


CHAPTEE  V 

THE  FARM-MANAGEMENT  PHASE 8  OF  APPLE- 
GROWING 

THE  problem  confronting  the  farmer  who  would  pro- 
duce apples  is  not  alone  to  raise  the  fruit  successfully. 
The  enterprise  must  pay,  and  this  depends  on  many  con- 
siderations aside  from  good  crops  of  apples  and  good 
markets  for  them.  He  must  maintain  a  farm  enterprise, 
or  an  establishment.  What  some  of  these  considerations 
are,  we  may  now  discover. 

FAEM    ORGANIZATION    IN    RELATION    TO    THE    ORCHARD 

The  relation  which  the  apple  orchard  bears  to  other 
farm  enterprises  differs  greatly  in  the  various  states  and 
regions.  It  varies  from  a  subsidiary  or  secondary  under- 
taking in  many  of  the  eastern  states  to  a  highly  specialized 
and  major  enterprise  in  the  Pacific  Northwest  regions. 

The  type  of  orchard  which  is  fast  taking  the  lead  in 
production  of  high  quality  commercial  fruit  is  the  spe- 
cialized planting  operated  by  the  individual  farmer  or  his 
manager.  This  type  is  prevalent  in  the  box-apple-produc- 
ing sections  and  is  also  found,  to  a  large  extent,  in  Vir- 
ginia, northwest  Arkansas,  parts  of  western  New  York, 
southern  Pennsylvania,  and  many  other  limited  localities. 
In  fact,  in  all  the  well-defined  commercial  areas,  the  apple 
orchard  is  usually  the  main  enterprise  on  the  farm. 

133 


134  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

There  are  many  obvious  advantages  in  this  system.  If  an 
orchard  is  the  main  enterprise,  it  will  usually  be  given  the 
care  and  detailed  attention  necessary  to  insure  its  success 
as  a  separate  proposition. 

However,  highly  specialized  orcharding  leaves  out  two 
very  important  points  which  must  be  considered  —  the 
danger  of  low  prices  and  the  difficulty  in  employing  labor 
effectively.  There  is  always  the  possibility  of  a  period 
of  low  fruit  prices,  in  which  case  the  old  adage  "  Do  not 
have  all  your  eggs  in  one  basket,"  holds  true.  One-crop 
farming  is  successful  from  the  standpoint  of  heavy  yields 
and  high  quality  production,  but  the  average  grower  or 
farmer  needs  an  income  every  year  to  meet  his  current 
expenses.  If  some  year  the  frost  takes  his  crop  or  prices 
are  so  low  as  to  be  below  cost  of  production,  he  has  nothing 
for  his  investment  or  year's  labor,  and  in  the  case  of  two 
or  three  successive  failures,  such  as  have  occurred  in  many 
sections,  it  is  only  the  exceptional  grower  who  can  survive. 
Such  conditions  actually  force  farmers  into  diversification. 
It  is  much  better  for  a  grower  to  plan  originally  for  a 
sufficient  degree  of  diversification  to  insure  his  living  in 
case  of  crop  failure,  for  if  he  is  later  forced  to  adjust  his 
business,  extra  land  may  not  be  available  and  the  future 
of  his  whole  farm  organization  may  be  seriously  impaired 
and  disrupted.  In  many  cases,  orchard  enterprises  which 
would  have  been  successful  had  they  been  connected  with 
general  farms,  failed  for  lack  of  income  in  poor  years. 

Another  principal  advantage  in  diversification  is  that  it 
insures  better  distribution  of  labor.  Help  may  be  hired 
and  profitably  employed  by  the  month  or  year.  In  the 
same  way,  the  owner  or  operator  may  engage  himself  in 
productive  labor  on  the  farm  throughout  the  entire  year. 


Farm-Management  Phases  of  Apple-Growing       135 

It  is  important  to  recognize,  however,  that  the  diversi- 
fied fruit-farm  may  become  so  varied  that  the  operator  is 
giving  practically  all  of  his  attention  to  other  crops  and 
is  neglecting  the  orchard. 

In  low  price  years,  diversification  was  urged  in  the 
Pacific  Northwest  and  elsewhere,  since  orchards  often  did 
not  pay  interest  on  the  high-priced  land.  If  the  invest- 
ment is  already  in  the  land,  it  does  not  follow  that  apples 
should  not  be  grown  when  they  do  not  pay  interest  on  the 
investment.  They  may  pay  a  better  rate  of  interest  than 
would  any  other  crop.  In  sections  in  which  trees  are 
capable  of  high  production,  and  land  is  held  at  such  fig- 
ures as  $1,500  to  $2,500  an  acre,  diversification  cannot  be 
recommended  beyond  a  limited  degree  sufficient  to  provide 
home  garden  truck  for  the  family  and  feed  for  the  work 
horses.  In  districts  such  as  Wenatchee  and  Yakima,  the 
prevailing  labor  is  by  the  day,  employed  when  needed. 
This  form  of  employment  obviates  the  necessity  for  the 
grower  to  find  work  for  his  men  outside  of  the  busy  season. 

The  advantages  of  a  highly  specialized  and  cultivated 
orchard  located  in  a  specialized  district  are:  (1)  The  as- 
surance that  the  orchard  will  be  given  detailed  care  and 
attention  since  the  operator  depends  directly  on  it  for 
a  living.  (2)  Labor  is  likely  to  be  more  skilled  and 
more  expert  if  employed  only  in  fruit-growing  and  not 
in  the  cultivation  of  other  crops.  (3)  Growers  are  forced 
to  cooperate  and  work  in  harmony  in  order  that  the  fruit 
may  be  marketed  successfully.  (4)  Standardization  is 
emphasized  and  encouraged,  both  in  scientific  methods  of 
management  and  in  handling  and  putting  up  the  fruit  for 
the  market.  (5)  The  best  varieties  survive  and  the  poor 
ones  are  soon  eliminated  under  keen  competition.  (6) 


136  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

The  specialist  is  nearly  always  more  thorough,  more  ef- 
ficient, and  produces  a  better  quality  of  product. 

The  outstanding  advantages  of  a  modified  system  of 
diversified  farming,  with  the  orchard  still  the  main  en- 
terprise, are:  (1)  There  is  an  assurance  of  more  profit- 
able distribution  of  labor  throughout  the  season.  (2) 
Month  labor  can  usually  be  employed,  thus  effecting  con- 
siderable saving  in  labor  jrates,  and  insuring  a  constant 
supply.  With  a  specialized  orchard,  unless  it  is  very 
large,  only  day  labor  may  be  employed  profitably.  (3) 
The  grower  is  protected  against  years  of  poor  fruit  prices 
by  having  sufficient  crops  and  diversification  to  insure  a 
living.  (4)  When  live-stock  is  kept  on  farms,  a  part  of 
the  manure  thus  produced  may  be  used  to  build  up  the  fer- 
tility of  the  orchard.  (5)  The  orchard  is  a  long-time 
investment,  and  unless  supported  by  a  diversified  farm 
requires  much  capital  to  bring  to  full  bearing  age  and 
productivity. 

Many  instances  might  be  cited  to  emphasize  the  im- 
portance of  diversification  in  connection  with  fruit-grow- 
ing. Ninety-nine  mortgages  are  said  to  have  been  fore- 
closed in  a  certain  western  fruit  district  in  one  day. 
These  failures  resulted  from  paying  a  high  price  for 
land  when  the  purchaser  had  insufficient  capital  to  wait  for 
the  orchard  to  come  into  profitable  bearing.  Low  prices 
for  fruit  added  to  the  number  of  failures.  Much  the  same 
occurred  in  several  districts,  particularly  in  the  Rogue 
Kiver  Valley,  Oregon,  Grand  Valley,  Colorado,  the  Bitter 
Root  Valley,  Montana,  and  parts  of  Idaho  and  Washington. 
These  failures  were  in  most  cases  due  to  false  advertising 
stating  that  fortunes  were  to  be  made  in  the  apple  busi- 
ness with  profitable  crops  when  the  trees  were  five  years 


Farm-Management  Phases  of  Apple-Growing       137 

old.  These  failures  do  not  necessarily  argue  against  the 
regions  themselves  but  against  specialized  farming  with  too 
little  capital  in  sections  not  adapted  to  that  type  of  enter- 
prise. 

The  Bitter  Boot  Valley,  Montana,  one  of  the  finest  gen- 
eral farming,  grain  and  stock  localities,  is  hardly  adapted 
to  specialized  fruit-growing.  Of  localities  in  the  United 
States  probably  best  adapted  to  high  specialization  in  ap- 
ples are  the  Wenatchee  and  Yakima  valleys,  Washington, 
Hood  River  Valley,  Oregon,  and  Pajaro  Valley,  Califor- 
nia. There  are  sections  in  the  East  where  specialized  ap- 
ple-growing may  be  justified  even  to  the  extent  of  ignor- 
ing all  other  types  of  farming.  However,  it  must-  be  con- 
ceded that  some  diversification  is  usually  advisable  for 
the  man  with  limited  capital. 

A  third  type  of  farm  organization  is  common  in  non- 
commercial districts,  and  even  in  the  heart  of  such  com- 
mercial regions  in  New  York  and  the  central  west  states. 
This  third  type  is  seen  on  the  general  farm  where  the 
orchard  is  of  secondary  importance,  too  large  for  a  family 
or  home  orchard,  yet  too  small  and  poorly  cultivated  to 
be  classed  as  commercial.  In  practice,  orchards,  when 
made  a  secondary  or  an  incidental  enterprise,  are  seldom 
a  financial  success.  When  orchards  of  this  type  are  elim- 
inated or  put  on  a  first-class  commercial  basis,  the  com- 
mercial industry  of  the  Central  West  and  East  will  assume 
new  vigor.  Production  will  be  more  standardized  and  will 
enable  eastern  growers  to  hold  their  markets  against  fruit 
from  other  regions. 

Semi-commercial  orchards  of  this  type,  partly  or  wholly 
neglected,  occur  on  thousands  of  farms  in  the  East  to-day. 
A  visit  to  Genesee  or  Oswego  County,  New  York,  will 


138  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

reveal  striking  illustrations  of  such  conditions.  Genesee 
County  is  interested  in  potatoes  and  beans ;  Oswego  in 
growing  pears,  dairying,  and  other  kinds  of  farming.  In 
these  counties  the  average  orchard  is  decidedly  a  side- 
line. Some  of  the  orchards  might  be  renovated  profitably 
but  this  is  only  advisable  when  the  owners  intend  to  give 
their  trees  continual  attention.  It  is  impossible  to  pro- 
duce strictly  commercial  fruit  if  careless  methods  are  em- 
ployed. A  neglected  orchard  which  is  not  a  source  of 
profit  should  be  cut  down  rather  than  be  allowed  to  breed 
disease  and  insect  pests  to  attack  good  trees  in  the  neigh- 
borhood. The  semi-commercial  orchard  was  the  prevail- 
ing type  in  the  past  but  it  is  rapidly  giving  way  under 
competition. 

The  family  orchard  need  not  be  discussed  here,  other 
than  to  say  that  it  fits  in  well  with  nearly  any  farm  organi- 
zation. It  serves  an  entirely  different  purpose  and  is  not 
considered  from  a  purely  profit-making  standpoint. 

The  fourth  type  of  farm  organization  to  be  discussed  in 
relation  to  apple-growing  is  the  stock  company  or  cor- 
poration. It  is  often  spoken  of  as  "  syndicate  farming." 
Much  depends  on  the  motive  behind  such  corporations. 
As  a  rule,  they  are  merely  stock-selling  schemes.  The 
record  of  such  organizations  in  various  parts  of  the 
country  has  been  one  of  conspicuous  failures,  particularly 
with  those  which  capitalized  orchard  land  at  so  much  an 
acre  in  an  endeavor  to  sell  stock  or  bonds  to  a  large  num- 
ber of  investors.  This  type  of  promotion  lends  itself  to 
fraud  and  misrepresentation  since  it  flourishes  in  times 
of  prosperity  and  in  good  fruit  years  when  profits  are 
large.  Glittering  prospects  are  held  out  to  investors  and 
appeals  are  made  to  a  class  of  persons  unfamiliar  with 


Farm-Management 'Phases  of  Apple-Growing        139 

any  type  of  fanning.  Fruit-growing  is  essentially  a 
specialized  one-man  enterprise. 

Following  are  listed  some  of  the  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages of  so-called  "  syndicate  farming  "  where  the  or- 
ganization is  legitimate  and  well  managed : 

Advantages:  (1)  Economy  in  the  purchase  of  sup- 
plies; (2)  possibility  for  more  effective  marketing  of  the 
produce;  (3)  improved  standardization  of  grade  and 
pack. 

Disadvantages:  (1)  Possibility  that  overhead  in  the 
way  of  salaries  and  other  expenses  will  become  excessive 
and  disastrous  in  poor  years.  The  farmer  can  retrench 
but  fixed  and  overhead  expenses  of  a  syndicate  are  not 
easily  lowered.  (2)  Lack  of  personal  interest  in  super- 
vision and  labor.  Farming  is  not  comparable  with  man- 
ufacturing plants  in  this  respect.  There  can  not  be  the 
organization  and  division  of  labor  as  in  a  factory.  In 
an  orchard,  men  are  being  constantly  shifted  from  one 
task  to  another  with  the  accompanying  tendency  to  saun- 
ter. The  hired  employee  is  more  wasteful  of  material  and 
careless  with  equipment  if  not  immediately  supervised  by 
the  owner.  (3)  The  possibilities  of  greatly  increasing 
production  in  order  to  meet  expensive  overhead  are  lim- 
ited. A  frost  may  offset  the  most  scientific  and  carefully 
prepared  program. 

Syndicate  farming  sounds  plausible  but  seldom  works 
out.  If  land  is  purchased  at  reasonable  figures,  very  often 
profit  is  made  on  increased  values.  As  a  type  of  farm  or- 
ganization, however,  it  has  not  been  precedented  with 
general  success. 

The  foregoing  discussion  relating  to  farm  organiza- 
tion must  of  necessity  apply  to  average  conditions  and  to 


140  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

the  average  individual.  The  individual  must  adapt  the 
organization  of  his  plans  to  the  economic  conditions  as  they 
exist  in  his  particular  community.  He  moist  take  advan- 
tage of  the  favorable,  conditions  in  order  to  combat  the 
unfavorable  ones.  It  must  be  recognized  that  commercial 
orcharding  is  seldom  successful  as  a  side-line,  enterprise 
and,  while  it  is  important  that  there  should  be  diversifi- 
cation in  order  to  provide  some  outside  income,  the  or- 
chard should  always  remain  a  leading  if  not  specialized 
undertaking. 

SYSTEMS   OF   TENANTRY 

The  problem  of  renting  enters  less-  into  the  apple-grow- 
ing industry  than  into  almost  any  other  type  of  farming. 
It  is  seldom  profitable  to  entrust  the  care  of  an  orchard  to 
the  tenant  system  and  this  has  discouraged  the  practice  of 
renting  among  the  owners  of  fruit-land  generally.  In 
years  of  crop  failure,  the  tenant  will  not  and  can  not  be 
expected  to  devote  himself  to  the  intense  care  which  might 
result  in  a  profitable,  crop  after  his  lease  has  expired. 
Obviously  a  long-term  lease  with  detailed  specifications  as 
to  the  number  and  character  of  sprays  to  be  applied,  the 
amount  of  pruning  and  cultivation  to  be  given,  and  a.  com- 
plete understanding  as  to  the  harvesting  methods,  would 
have  many  advantages  over  a  short-time  lease.  And  yet 
even  with  such  specifications,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  se- 
cure the  personal  attention  which  is  the  secret  of  success. 

The  basis  for  renting  apple  orchards  depends  largely 
on  the  individual  orchard  and  also  varies  considerably  in 
different  regions.  A  system  in  which  the  owner  has  sup- 
ervision is\obviously  desirable  from  the  owner's  standpoint. 
A  number  of  systems  of  tenantry  will  be  discussed  briefly. 


Farm-Management  Phases  of  Apple-Growing       141 

SYSTEM  I. 

Renter  furnishes:  Owner  furnishes: 

1.  Half  of  all  labor  and  material       1.  Half  of  all  labor  and  material 

costs.  costs. 

2.  Half    of    all    equipment    and      2.  Half    of    all    equipment    and 

live-stock.  live-stock. 

3.  Dwelling  for  tenant. 

Renter  takes:  Owner  takes: 

1.  One-third  of  packed  fruit.  1.  Two-thirds  of  packed  fruit. 

Under  the  above  system,  the  owner  and  tenant  enter  into 
a  straight  partnership  to  operate  the  fruit-farm,  first  set- 
ting aside  one-third  of  the  packed  fruit  to  go  to  the  owner 
for  rental  on  his  farm.  When  the  tenant  works  alone  he 
receives  half  wages.  If  one  additional  man  is  needed,  his 
services  are  paid  for  by  the  owner  to  offset  the  labor  of  the 
tenant.  Under  this  plan  a  desirable  man  with  little  capi- 
tal would  be  able  to  get  a  start,  while  the  owner  would 
be  protected  by  having  a  direct  voice  in  the  operation  of 
his  orchard. 

SYSTEM  II. 

Renter  furnishes:  Owner  furnishes: 

1.  All  labor,  material,  and  equip-       1.  Farm  and  suitable  dwelling. 

ment  with  the  exception  of  2.  All  of  the  fertilizer  and  mate- 
fertilizer   and   material   for  rial  for  the  winter  spray, 

the  winter  spray.  3.  One-half    of    the    barrels    or 

2.  One-half    of    the    barrels    or  boxes. 

boxes. 

Renter  takes:  Owner  takes: 

1.  Half  of  packed  fruit  and  de-       1.  Half  of  the  packed  fruit, 
livers  the  other  half  to  the 
warehouse. 

In  western  New  York  where  very  often  the  orchard  is 
only  one  of  several  enterprises  on  a  general  farm,  the 
above  system  of  tenantry  is  common.  Under  this  system 
the  owner  exercises  an  appreciable,  yet  less  far-reaching 
influence  in  the  management  of  his  orchard  than  under 


142  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

plan  No.  I.  The  second  plan  affords  the  owner  an  at- 
tractive contract,  since  it  gives  to  him  a  large  part  of  the 
crop  with  little  cash  outlay.  On  the  whole,  the  system 
is  fairly  equitable,  although  in  years  of  low  prices  the 
tenant  might  be  put  at  a  relative  disadvantage.  The 
owner  furnishes  the  fertilizer,  since  that  is  somewhat  in 
the  nature  of  a  permanent  improvement.  He  also  fur- 
nishes material  for  winter  spray,  an  expensive  item  which 
the  tenant  could  ill  afford  to  bear  in  years  of  total  crop 
failure,  and  yet  one  which  the  owner  cannot  venture  to 
omit  if  he  values  the  vigor  of  his  trees. 

SYSTEM  HE. 

Renter  furnishes:  Owner  furnishes: 

1.  All  labor,  material,  and  equip-      1.  Farm  and  suitable  dwelling, 
ment. 

Renter  takes:  Owner  takes: 

1.  Three-fifths  of  crop.  1.  Two-fifths    of    crop,    delivered 

in  town  and  packed  out  in 
barrels. 

SYSTEM  IV. 

Renter  furnishes:  Owner  furnishes: 

1.  Equipment,  all  labor  and  ma-       1.  Farm  and  suitable  dwelling. 

terial  costs  up  to  harvest. 

2.  Labor  and  material  costs  for      2.  One-half  of  picking  labor. 

picking,  .  packing   and    han- 
dling one-half  of  the  fruit. 

Renter  takes:  Owner  takes: 

1.  One-half  of  picked  fruit,  packs  1.  One-half  of  picked  fruit,  packs 

and  handles  it  according  to  and  handles  it  according  to 

his  own  judgment.  his  own  judgment. 

Under  the  above  system,  the  owner  is  allowed  the  privi- 
lege of  grading  and  packing  out  his  own  fruit  while  the 
same  privilege  is  reserved  for  the  tenant.  A  modified 


Farm-Management  Phases  of  Apple-Growing       143 

form  of  the  above  is  seen  when  the  owner  furnishes  half 
of  the  picking  labor  and  half  of  all  labor  and  material 
costs  incident  to  the  harvesting  of  the  fruit,  taking  one- 
half  of  the  crop,  but  allowing  the  tenant  entire  supervision 
of  the  orchard  operations. 

A  study  of  an  equitable  basis  for  tenantry  has  revealed 
that  when  the  tenant  is  furnishing  all  the  labor  he  is  en- 
titled to  a  larger  proportion  of  the  crop  in  years  of  exceed- 
ingly heavy  production.  Otherwise  the  owner  reaps  prac- 
tically all  the  benefits  of  a  large  crop.  Unfortunately, 
low  prices  prevail  in  heavy  crop  years.  With  straight 
share  rentals  in  such  years,  the  owner  obtains  a  large 
amount  of  fruit  which  even  at  low  prices  makes  good  re- 
turns. If  the  tenant,  however,  receives  low  prices  for  his 
fruit,  he  has  insufficient  margin  to  cover  the  heavy  ex- 
penditure in  harvesting  the  landlord's  portion  of  the 
crop.  Some  division  of  the  labor  and  handling  costs  at 
harvest  time  would  seem  more  equitable. 

Occasionally  a  long-term  cash  lease  at  a  reasonable  figure 
can  be  secured  on  somewhat  run-down  orchards  in  a  fav- 
orable locality.  Frequently  such  an  orchard  is  making 
little  or  no  returns  and  a  cash  offer  will  be  attractive  to  the 
owner.  For  the  experienced  man  with  little  capital,  a 
long-term  lease  with  a  view  to  building  up  and  increasing 
the  yields  from  such  an  orchard  sometimes  proves  a  profit- 
able venture,  particularly  when  the  owner  considers  that 
his  orchard  will  be  improved  and  for  such  a  reason  grants 
an  otherwise  low  cash  rental  figure.  Some  special  induce- 
ment must.be  offered  to  a  tenant,  otherwise  he  can  not 
afford  to  devote  his  best  energy  towards  building  up  a  suc- 
cessful orchard  from  which  another  will  reap  the  ultimate 
reward. 


CHAPTER  VI 
ESTABLISHING  THE  APPLE  ORCHARD 

THOROUGH  preparation  of  the  land  before  planting  is 
exceedingly  important  if  the  apple  orchard  is  to  be  well 
established.  Very  often  orchards  are  planted  on  pasture, 
timbered,  or  sage-brush  land  where  the  soil  has  been  un- 
tilled.  Timbered  land,  once  cleared  of  stumps  and  brush, 
usually  lends  itself  well  to  early  planting  because  of  an 
abundance  of  humus  available  for  young  trees.  It  is  best 
in  nearly  all  cases,  however,  to  anticipate  planting  by  a 
year  or  two  in  order  thoroughly  to  subjugate  the  soil  by 
the  growing  of  tilled  or  cover-crops.  Soils  which  have 
been  depleted  in  fertility  or  which  are  low  in  humus-con- 
tent may  be  built  up  by  the  growing  of  such  legumes  as 
alfalfa  or  clover.  In  the  case  of  arid  or  sage-brush  lands 
reclaimed  for  irrigation,  the  soil  is  usually  low  in  humus- 
content.  In  such  instances  the  growing  of  alfalfa  for  one 
or  two  seasons  will  usually  repay  the  orchardist  for  delay 
in  planting. 

Deep  plowing  should  precede  planting  in  every  case, 
for  once  the  trees  are  established,  deep  cultivation  is  likely 
to  injure  the  rooting  system.  Dynamiting  is  sometimes 
recommended  when  a  hardpan  or  thin  stratum  of  rock 
occurs  near  the  surface,  but  ordinarily  this  practice  is  not 
to  be  advised  and  such  soils  should  be  avoided.  When 
spring  planting  is  to  be  employed,  fall  plowing  is  recom- 

144 


Establishing  the  Apple  Orchard  145 

mended,  since  it  exposes  the  soil  to  the  ameliorating  in- 
fluences of  the  winter  and  causes  the  destruction  of  many 
insect  pests  and  rodents.  In  the  case  of  sod  land,  it  is  best 
to  plow  and  cross-plow  in  the  fall,  leaving  the  land  rough 
throughout  the  winter,  working  it  up  thoroughly  with  the 
disc  and  harrow  the  following  spring.  When  cover-crops 
are  grown  to  improve  the  soil,  plowing  is  usually  deferred 
from  fall  until  spring. 

Land  which  is  to  be  irrigated  should  be  leveled  and  care- 
fully laid  off  with  irrigation  ditches  prior  to  planting, 
since  it  is  not  easy  to  effect  changes  in  the  contour  once 
trees  have  been  set. 

NURSERY    STOCK 

Apple  trees  are  propagated  either  by  grafting  or  bud- 
ding, the  former  being  the  most  common  method.  No 
attempt  will  be  made  to  discuss  methods  of  propagation 
since  it  is  usually  advisable  for  the  orchardist  to  buy  his 
trees  from  a  reliable  nurseryman  rather  than  to  propa- 
gate them  himself. 

The  purchase  of  nursery  stock  should  receive  most 
careful  attention.  The  grower  should  consult  with  state 
or  government  horticulturists  or  with  successful  growers 
in  order  to  establish  the  integrity  of  the  firm  with  which 
he  proposes  to  deal.  The  orchardist  should  buy  only  the 
best  trees,  dealing  directly  with  the  nursery  and  avoiding 
tree  peddlers.  The  purchase  of  inferior  stock  is  always 
poor  economy. 

All  horticulturists  do  not  agree  as  to  the  proper  age  of 
trees  to  plant.  However,  the  one-year  whip  is  usually 
most  desirable,  since  it  can  be  trained  properly  and  has 


146  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

more  fibrous  roots.  Trees  older  than  one  year  are  often 
poorly  shaped. 

It  is  advisable  to  purchase  nursery  stock  well  in  advance 
of  planting  in  order  than  one  may  secure  stock  of  desired 
variety  and  quality.  If  trees  are  to  be  planted  in  the 
spring,  they  may  be  purchased  safely  in  the  preceding  fall 
and  "  heeled-in  "  by  the  grower  himself.  On  arrival,  all 
trees  should  be  carefully  inspected  for  disease,  attention 
being  given  particularly  to  infestation  of  scale  or  woolly 
aphis,  or  the  presence  of  crown-gall.  If  possible,  a  com- 
petent inspector  should  pass  on  the  stock  to  see  that  the 
trees  are  healthy,  vigorous,  and  of  smooth  bright  bark. 
One-year  old  whips  should  be  about  5  feet  tall  and  %  inch 
in  diameter  at  the  base. 

The  subject  of  varieties  is  thoroughly  discussed  in 
Chapter  XIX.  Selection  should  be  confined  to  three  or 
four  standard  varieties  for  commercial  planting. 

Immediately  on  arrival,  all  trees  should  either  be 
planted  or  "heeled-in."  If  trees  arrive  in  freezing 
weather,  they  should  be  left  in  the  original  package  and 
kept  in  a  cool  damp  place  until  thawed  out.  Qrdinarily, 
however,  the  grower  should  avoid  leaving  the  trees  in  the 
original  package  lest  they  become  seriously  injured  or 
entirely  worthless  from  drying  out. 

When  planting  is  not  to  be  done  immediately,  the 
bundles  should  be  cut  open  and  the  trees  unpacked  and 
"  heeled-in "  singly.  Too  much  emphasis  can  not  be 
placed  on  the  importance  of  "  heeling-in "  the  trees  on 
their  arrival.  In  this  operation,  a  trench  is  dug  about  18 
inches  deep  and  the  trees  placed  in  the  trench  with  their 
tops  slanting  to  the  south  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees. 
Moist  soil  should  be  carefully  worked  in  about  the  roots  of 


Establishing  the  Apple  Orchard  147 

the  trees  so  that  they  will  not  dry  out.     Care  must  be  taken 
in  order  that  the  varieties  will  not  become  mixed. 

SYSTEMS    OF    PLANTING    (FIG.    2  ) 

The  following  are  the  three  best-known  planting 
systems : 

( 1 )  In  the  square  planting  system,  the  rows  run  at  right 
angles  and\  the  trees  are  the  same  distance  apart  each 
way.     This  method  facilitates  cultivation,  spraying,  har- 
vesting, and  other  cultural  operations. 

(2)  In  the  hexagonal  system  the  trees  are  equally  dis- 
tant in  every  direction,  being  set  in  equilateral  triangles 
or  alternate  rows,  so  that  the  space  between  each  group  of 
four  trees  is  diamond-shaped.     The  hexagonal  system  does 
not  lend  itself  well  to  the  use  of  fillers,  but  since  all  the 
trees  are  equidistant  there  is  an  equal  distribution  of  air, 
light  and  soil.     This  system  provides  for  about  15  per 
cent  more  trees  to  the  acre  than  could  be  planted  on  the 
square  plan  at  the  same  planting  distance. 

(3)  With  the  quincunx  system,  the  trees  are  set  in 
squares  with  a  tree  in  the  center.     This  latter  plan  is 
adapted  to  plantings  where  fillers  are  used,  it  being  possi- 
ble to  remove  the  tree  in  the  center  of  the  square  without 
disturbing  the  permanent  planting  system. 

The  symmetry  of  the  orchard  depends  to  a  large  ex- 
tent on  the  evenness  of  the  rows.  When  a  large  orchard 
is  being  set,  it  may  pay  to  employ  the  use  of  a  transit  so 
that  the  trees  may  be  spaced  with  utmost  accuracy. 
This  is  not  absolutely  necessary,  however,  since  more  sim- 
ple methods  may  be  practiced,  particularly  with  more 
limited  plantings.  Whatever  system  of  planting  is  fol- 
lowed in  laying  out  the  orchard,  the  first  trees  should  be 


148 


The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 


HBXAGOHtIL 


*--*. 


x 

x 

x 

x 

V 

Ix 

X 

x* 

L>:; 

x 

ft 

x    \ 

X 

A, 

X 

x 

V 

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v' 

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'    xv 

t,\ 

X 

FlG.  2. —  The  rectangular  or  square,  the  hexagonal  or  equilateral 
triangle  and  the  quincunx  systems  of  planting.  Planting-board  of 
type  often  used  in  setting  illustrated  at  bottom  of  figure. 

from  20  to  25  feet  from  the  fence  in  order  to  afford  room 
for  turning  a  team  or  tractor  engaged  in  orchard  operations. 


By  laying  off  the  base  line  parallel  with  the  fence  on 
one  side  of  the  field  and  by  placing  stakes  at  regular  in- 


Establishing  the  Apple  Orchard  149 

tervals  in  this  line,  it  will  be  possible  to  establish  the 
position  of  the  trees  in  this  first  row.  By  establishing 
another  line  at  right  angles  to  the  first,  it  will  be  possible 
with  the  use  of  stakes  to  sight  across  and  establish  par- 
allel lines  which  will  serve  as  guides  in  lining  up  the  rows. 
It  is  usually  advisable  to  set  a  stake  at  the  place  for  eacli 
tree.  Then  after  sighting  across  from  the  base  lines, 
it  will  be  possible  to  determine  the  stakes  which  are  not  in 
alignment.  Figure  2  shows  the  three  important  systems 
for  laying  out  commercial  plantings.  Table  VIII  indi- 
cates the  number  of  trees  to  the  acre  under  different  plant- 
ing distances  and  systems. 

TABLE  VIII. —  NUMBER  OF  TREES  TO  THE  ACRE 

Distance  Apart  Square                      Hexagonal  Quincunx 

16x16  170  196  303 

18x18  134  154  239 

20x20  108  124  129 

22x22  90  104  148 

24x24  76  87  132 

25x25  70  80  125 

26x26  64  74  114 

28x28  56  64  I      100 

30x30  48  55  85 

32x32  43  49  76 

33x33  40  46  71 

35x35  35  41  65 

36x36  34  39  60 

40x40  27  32  48 

45x45  22  25  39 

Hexagonal  system. 

The  use  of  a  wire  triangle  is  recommended  for  planting 
trees  under  the  hexagonal  system.  Each  side  of  the  tri- 
angle should  represent  the  distance  between  the  permanent 
trees.  The  wires  should  be  connected  at  each  angle  by 
means  of  rings.  The  triangle  is  then  carried  about  by 


150  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

three  workmen,  and  if  kept  tightly  drawn  and  held  level, 
stakes  marking  the  exact  site  of  the  trees  may  be  located 
after  the  first  base  line  along  the  side  of  the  orchard  has 
been  laid  off. 

Attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  in  laying  off  planting 
distances  on  uneven  land,  care  must  be  taken  in  keeping 
the  measuring  line  level  so  that  the  distance  between  trees 
does  not  include  the  slope  of  the  land. 

Quincunx  system. 

The  quincunx  being  a  modification  of  the  square  system, 
may  be  laid  off  in  the  same  manner  as  the  latter.  The 
location  of  the  center  tree  may  be  established  by  placing 
an  additional  stake  midway  between  the  tree  stakes  in  the 
base  line. 

PLANTING  DISTANCES 

Close  planting  is  a  common  tendency  in  laying  out 
commercial  apple  orchards.  While  planting  distances 
vary  with  the  variety  and  with  the  region,  it  is  seldom 
advisable  to  space  permanent  trees  closer  than  30  feet 
apart.  Spreading  trees  such  as  Baldwin,  Rhode  Island 
Greening  and  Arkansas  (Black  Twig)  should  be  planted 
at  greater  distances,  not  closer  than  40  feet  apart  when 
growth  is  vigorous.  A  great  mistake  was  made  in  plant- 
ing Xew  York  orchards  closer  than  40  feet.  Varieties 
such  as  Wagener,  Yellow  Transparent,  and  Twenty  Ounce, 
which  have  an  upright  habit  of  growth,  do  not  require 
extreme  distances  and  may  be  planted  as  close  as  30  feet. 
In  regions  in  which  trees  attain  smaller  size,  the  planting 
distances  of  these  upright  growing  trees  may  be  reduced 


Establishing  the  Apple  Orchard  151 

to  28  or  even  25  feet.  Orchardists  should  bear  in  mind, 
however,  that  trees  set  too  close  together  very  seriously 
handicap  orchard  operations,  for  branches  interlock  when 
full  growth  is  attained. 

TIME   TO   PLANT 

The  time  of  planting  depends  entirely  on  local  condi- 
tions. Fall  plantings  may  offer  one  distinct  advantage  if 
the  trees  become  established  before  winter  sets  in  and  are 
able  to  start  growth  early  in  the  spring.  However,  if  the 
winter  is  cold,  dry,  or  otherwise  unfavorable,  the  fall 
planted  trees  may  be  seriously  checked  in  their  early 
growth.  For  this  reason  spring  planting  is  preferred  in 
most  northern  regions.  In  the  southern  latitudes,  late  fall 
or  early  winter  is  usually  considered  safe. 

If  there  is  any  question,  it  is  safer  to  plant  in  the 
spring  as  soon  as  the  soil  can  be  placed  in  good  tilth. 
Trees  should  be  kept  dormant  until  setting. 

SETTING  TEEES 

The  use  of  the  planting-board  is  important  in  securing 
perfect  alignment.  (See  Fig.  2-.)  Such  a  board  is  usu- 
ally 4  or  5  feet  long,  6  inches  wide  and  1  inch  thick  with 
a  notch  in  one  side  at  the  center  and  a  hole  in  each  end. 
In  using  this  device,  the  notch  in  the  center  is  first  placed 
tightly  against  the  stake  which  stands  where  the  tree  is 
to  be  set.  Other  stakes  are  then  driven  through  the  holes 
in  either  end  and  the  board  is  later  removed  to  permit  the 
digging  of  the  hole.  After  the  hole  is  dug,  the  board  may 
be  placed  over  the  pins  and  the  tree  set  so  as  to  occupy  the 
same  position  in  the  notch  as  did  the  original  stake. 


152  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

A  four-man  crew  is  efficient  when  a  large  number  of 
trees  are  to  be  planted.  Holes  should  be  dug  large  enough 
to  accommodate  the  root  system  without  crowding  or 
bunching  the  roots,  also  sufficiently  deep  to  permit  the 
planting  of  the  tree  two  or  three  inches  deeper  than  it 
stood  in  the  nursery  row.  It  is  important  that  all  broken, 
bruised  or  interlacing  roots  be  cut  away  at  the  time  of 
transplanting.  Long  roots  should  be  cut  back  to  about 
six  inches.  After  the  tree  has  been  located  with  the  aid  of 
the  planting-board,  rich  soil  from  the  surface  should  be 
worked  tightly  under  and  among  the  roots  with  the  fingers. 
The  hole  should  then  be  filled  about  half  full  of  dirt  and 
tramped.  Hard  lumpy  soil  should  be  avoided  since  it 
dries  out  easily.  The  remainder  of  the  hole  should  be 
filled  and  the  earth  carefully  tamped  about  the  roots.  A 
few  shovelfuls  of  loose  dirt  or  a  few  forkfuls  of  loose 
manure  thrown  about  the  tree  is  a  last  precaution  to  pre- 
vent the  loss  of  moisture  and  completes  the  operation  of 
planting.  When  strong  winds  prevail  as  in  many  local- 
ities, it  is  important  that  the  tree  be  leaned  strongly 
against  prevailing  winds.  When  large  numbers  of  trees 
are  being  planted,  the  roots  should  be  covered  with  saw- 
dust or  placed  in  a  tub  of  loamy  soil  mixed  with  water. 
This  precaution  will  prevent  drying  out  of  the  trees  when 
they  are  being  distributed  for  planting. 

HEADING  TREES 

In  transplanting,  a  large  part  of  the  root  system  of  the 
young  tree  is  removed.  In  order  to  preserve  the  proper 
balance  between  the  top  and  the  roots,  it  is  necessary  that 
the  former  be  cut  back  as  severely  or  even  more  so  than  the 


PLATE  IX. —  Upper,  Weeder  in  use  in  a  Hood  Eiver  orchard. 
Lower,  Type  of  float  commonly  used  at  Hood  River  after  cultiva- 
tion. 


Establishing  the  Apple  Orchard  153 

root  system.  Not  only  does  this  maintain  the  proper  bal- 
ance between  root  and  top,  but  it  permits  the  proper  head- 
ing of  the  tree.  While  no  definite  height  is  given  for 
heading,  it  is  suggested  that  one-year  apple  whips  should 
be  cut  to  about  24  inches  at  time  of  planting  in  order  that 
the  proper  shaped  trees  may  be  developed.  Emphasis  is 
laid  on  the  advantages  of  low-headed  trees.  Such  opera- 
tions as  spraying,  pruning,  thinning  and  harvesting  can 
be  done  more  economically  and  effectively  when  the  bear- 
ing surface  is  close  to  the  ground. 

USE   OF   FILLEBS   AND   INTEK-CEOPS 

The  practice  of  planting  "  fillers  "  to  utilize  the  land 
between  young  trees  is  common  and  may  have  the  advant- 
age of  bringing  early  returns  before  the  permanent  orchard 
attains  bearing.  Peaches  or  early  bearing  varieties  of 
apples  such  as  the  Yellow  Transparent  are  used  most  com- 
monly as  fillers.  The  grower  usually  makes  the  mistake 
of  allowing  these  temporary  trees  to  remain  too  long,  with 
the  result  that  the  permanent  trees  are  crowded  and  their 
productivity  jeopardized.  If  the  orchard  is  favorably  sit- 
uated for  the  production  of  peaches,  the  grower  will  find 
that  this  fruit  lends  itself  well  to  a  system  of  fillers.  Va- 
rieties of  apples  such  as  Mclntosh,  Wealthy,  Wagener, 
Duchess  and  Yellow  Transparent,  which  come  into  bear- 
ing early,  are  adapted  for  use  as  fillers. 

The  growing  of  small-fruits  between  the  rows,'  such  as 
strawberries,  blackberries  and  raspberries,  has  been  very- 
profitable  in  some  regions.  Notable  among  such  instances 
is  the  Hood  River  Valley,  well  known  for  its  strawberries 
produced  as  an  inter-crop  in  the  young  apple  orchards. 


154  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

Cultivated  crops  such  as  potatoes  and  tomatoes  may  prove 
profitable  as  inter-crops,  although  care  must  be  taken  not 
to  encroach  on  the  soil  and  water  requirements  of  the  young 
trees. 


CHAPTER  VII 
CULTIVATION  OF  THE  ORCHARD 

IN  this  chapter  will  be  discussed  methods  of  tillage  and 
systems  involving  the  use  of  cover-crops  and  sod-mulch,  and 
the  use  of  the  tractor  in  orchard  cultivation. 

No  hard  and  fast  rules  can  be  laid  down  for  soil  man- 
agement since  conditions  vary  greatly  in  different  regions, 
but  a  number  of  principles  should  be  followed  everywhere. 
Usually  the  correct  system  is  worked  out  eventually  by  the 
most  successful  grower  in  any  community  and  it  is  by 
following  in  a  general  way  methods  which  by  demonstra- 
tion have  established  their  efficiency  that  one  may  hope 
for  the  best  results. 

In  reacting  from  the  neglectful  practices  of  soil  man- 
agement which  prevailed  in  many  eastern  orchards,  the 
western  apple-growers  for  a  period  of  years  adopted  a  pro- 
gram of  intensive  and  absolutely  clean  cultivation.  (See 
Plate  VII.)  Conservation  of  moisture  and  stimulation  of 
tree  growth  were  the  two  principal  reasons  for  such  a  pro- 
gram. Until  1915  absolutely  clean  cultivation  was  the 
practice  in  all  of  the  leading  apple  regions  of  the  Pacific 
Northwest.  As  the  trees  grew  older,  greater  demands 
were  made  on  the  soil  and  it  became  apparent  that  this 
system  of  soil  management  led  to  a  depletion  of  fertility 
and  failed  particularly  in  maintaining  the  necessary  hu- 
mus-content. A  rapid  change  occurred  in  the  system  of 
soil  management  and  at  present  a  cover-  or  shade-crop  sys- 

155 


156  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

tern  has  come  into  Common  use.  Alfalfa  seems  best  suited 
to  the  irrigated  orchard  land  of  the  West  and  although  it 
is  spoken  of  there  as  a  cover-crop,  it  is  more  properly  either 
an  inter-crop  or  a  sod-mulch,  for  it  remains  in  the  orchard 
for  several  years  and  as  a  rule  one  or  two  cuttings  are  taken 
off  in  the  form  of  hay. 

CLEAN  CULTIVATION 

Clean  cultivation  has  many  evils  which  are  not  at  once 
apparent.  The  most  striking  example  occurred  in  the 
Hood  River  Valley,  Oregon,  where  clean  cultivation  was 
practiced  until  about  1915  when  the  bearing  orchards 
began  to  show  marked  signs  of  lack  of  vigor,  evidenced  by 
pale  foliage,  light  yields  of  small  fruit  and  poor  annual 
growth.  The  Hood  River  orchards  made  a  marked  recov- 
ery in  the  next  two  or  three  years,  following  wider  use  of 
irrigation  in  growing  leguminous  cover-crops  and  on  appli- 
cation of  nitrate  of  soda. 

Except  in  special  cases,  continued  clean  cultivation  can 
have  only  disastrous  results.  Where  there  is  sufficient 
nitrogen  and  humus  in  the  soil,  there  is  no  particular 
objection  to  clean  cultivation  for  a  limited  period  of  years. 
Clean  culture  for  a  time  unquestionably  stimulates  tree 
growth  and  increases  yields.  It  has  been  observed  that 
this  practice  is  followed  continuously  in  some  of  the  best 
paying  and  finest  apple  orchards  in  the  United  States. 
Invariably,  however,  in  such  instances  the  original  soil  was 
unusually  rich  in  humus  and  other  plant-food  and  this 
reservoir  has  not  been  exhausted.  It  is  better  to  maintain 
fertility,  for  once  depleted  its  restoration  is  difficult. 

In  starting  young  orchards,  clean  cultivation  is  not 
harmful  for  the  first  three  or  four  years.  In  fact,  it  may 


Cultivation  of  the  Orchard  157 

be  very  beneficial  and  is  probably  advisable  when  inter- 
crops are  not  particularly  profitable.  In  certain  seasons 
and  in  certain  regions,  lack  of  sufficient  moisture  is  a  crit- 
ical factor.  Obviously  the  only  method  to  follow  in  dry 
years  is  to  practice  intensive  cultivation  in  order  to  pre- 
serve the  soil-mulch  so  necessary  for  moisture  conserva- 
tion. Ordinarily  regions  in  which  such  an  extreme  short- 
age of  moisture  might  take  place  would  hardly  be  recom- 
mended for  apples,  although  dry  years  are  likely  to  occur 
in  almost  every  section. 

When  clean  cultivation  is  practiced,  humus  should  be 
supplied.  Barnyard  manure,  when  available,  is  the  most 
suitable  form,  since  it  not  only  supplies  humus  but  nitrogen 
and  other  elements  of  plant-food  as  well.  Straw,  shredded 
cow  fodder,  or  stubble  clippings  when  scattered  under  trees 
and  incorporated  in  the  soil,  increase  the  humus-content. 
Applications  of  the  latter  materials  at  the  rate  of  50  to  75 
pounds  each  for  trees  under  six  years  and  from  75  to  150 
pounds  each  for  trees  six  to  ten  years  will  prove  beneficial. 

SOD-  OR  GRASS-MULCH 

Many  apple  orchards  of  the  United  States  are  allowed 
to  remain  in  sod-  or  grass-mulch.  The  sod-mulch  system 
offers  the  line  of  least  resistance  and  represents  the  least 
expenditure  of  time  and  effort.  It  is  particularly  common 
throughout  eastern  and  middle  west  orchards.  Its  possi- 
ble advantages  are:  (1)  increased  color  of  fruit;  (2) 
reduced  cost  an  acre;  (3)  prevents  hilly  or  mountainous 
soils  from  washing. 

The  sod-mulch  is  probably  the  only  practicable  system 
for  certain  hilly  districts  in  Xew  England  and  throughout 
the  Piedmont  region  in  Virginia  where  the  orchard  land 


158  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

is  too  steep  to  cultivate  and  where  clean  cultivation  would 
result  in  bad  washing.  The  natural  vegetative  growth 
supplemented  by  fertilization  in  some  instances  and  occa- 
sional cultivation  about  trees  serves  to  maintain  the  fertil- 
ity of  these  soils. 

The  disadvantages  of  the  sod-mulch  system  are:  (1) 
reduces  yields;  (2)  reduces  vitality  and  tree  growth;  (3) 
provides  harbor  for  mice,  insects  and  diseases;  (4)  has 
tendency  to  encourage  general  neglect;  (5)  reduces  soil 
aeration;  (6)  sheds  rain. 

In  all  cost-production  studies,  the  question  of  yield 
appears  as  the  critical  factor.  It  is  not  the  acre  cost  of 
operation,  but  the  barrel  or  box  cost  of  production  that 
determines  profit.  If  the  yield  can  be  increased,  the  cost 
of  production  is  usually  materially  decreased.  Eecords 
taken  by  the  writers  show  that  in  general  yields  are  re- 
duced under  the  sod-mulch  system. 

While  the  sod-mulch  may  be  depended  on  to  return 
humus  to  the  soil  and  commercial  fertilizer  may  maintain 
fertility,  the  lack  of  cultivation  will  undoubtedly  be  felt, 
and  as  a  general  rule  trees  in  sod-mulch  have  less  vitality 
and  make  less  growth  than  those  which  are  cultivated. 

Some  growers,  notably  one  very  successful  grower  in 
western  New  York  and  many  in  southern  Ohio,  use  the 
sod-mulch  system  very  profitably.  It  can  not  be  con- 
demned under  all  conditions  but  it  unquestionably  tends 
to  encourage  general  neglect  of  the  orchard.  The  grower 
with  the  sod  orchard  is  not  brought  into  such  intimate 
touch  with  his  trees  as  the  one  who  practices  more  intensive 
culture  and  who  is  working  about  among  his  trees  every 
few  days.  Furthermore,  the  sod  furnishes  a  harbor  for 
mice,  insects  and  diseases. 


Cultivation  of  the  Orchard  159 

CLEAN  CULTIVATION  WITH  COVEK-CEOPS 

The  best  general  method  of  soil  management  for  all 
commercial  apple  regions,  with  two  possible  exceptions,  is 
clean  cultivation  with  the  use  of  a  cover-crop.  The  two 
general  exceptions  are:  (1)  western  irrigated  orchards 
which  at  present  are  committed  largely  to  the  system  of 
leguminous  inter-crop  or  perennial  cover-crop;  and  (2) 
orchards  which  are  too  hilly  to  permit  of  cultivation,  such 
as  have  been  described  for  parts  of  Xew  England  and 
Virginia. 

The  term  "  cover-crop  "  is  correctly  applied  to  a  crop 
sown  in  the  late  summer  months,  usually  in  July  or 
August,  which  is  plowed  under  the  following  spring.  By 
cultivating  the  orchard  until  late  summer,  the  grower  is 
using  the  best  method  for  conserving  the  moisture  and  is 
insuring  other  benefits  to  be  derived  from  cultivation. 

In  sowing  the  cover-crop  in  the  summer  or  fall,  the 
orchardist  can  check  the  growth  of  his  trees  and  insure  the 
hardening  of  their  growth  before  winter  without  robbing 
them  of  the  plant-food  necessary  to  mature  the  crop.  The 
cover-crop  acts  as  a  protection  during  the  winter  months 
and  when  plowed  under  in  the  spring  increases  the  supply 
of  humus,  improves  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  and 
makes  more  plant-food  available.  This  system  of  soil 
management  is  most  common  in  western  New  York  where 
mammoth  red  clover  and  vetch  are  the  best  suited 
leguminous  cover-crops  and  rye,  buckwheat,  oats,  barley, 
rape  and  cow-horn  turnips  are  the  widely  grown  non- 
leguminous  cover-crops.  Leguminous  cover-crops  are 
usually  more  desirable  since  they  not  only  add  humus,  but 
make  more  nitrogen  available. 


160  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

By  combining  cover-crops  with  cultivation,  it  is  possible 
to  secure  nearly  all  of  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the' 
varying1  methods  of  soil  treatment.  Such  a  system  is 
designed  to  preserve  and  promote  permanent  soil  fertility. 

CQVEB-CBOPS 

There  are  two  important  kinds  of  cover-crops:  (1) 
leguminous,  such  as  alfalfa,  clover,  peas,  vetch  and  beans; 
(2)  non-leguminous,  such  as  rye,  rape  and  buckwheat. 
These  crops  may  be  further  subdivided  into  those  which 
live  over  the  winter,  such  as  clover,  vetch  and  rye,  and 
those  like  rape,  buckwheat  and  peas  which  die  down  in  the 
fall.  Leguminous  crops  are  recommended  at  least  once  in 
three  years  or  more  often,  especially  when  trees  are  not 
making  sufficient  annual  growth  and  when  foliage  is  pale. 
As  a  general  rule,  they  are  preferable  to  non-leguminous 
crops  since  they  add  nitrogen  to  the  soil.  Cover-crops 
which  live  through  the  winter  protect  the  trees  against 
winter-injury  in  the  absence  of  snow  and  also  prevent 
the  washing  and  leaching  of  soluble  plant-foods. 

Alfalfa  is  by  far  the  most  popular  cover-crop  in  western 
irrigated  orchards  where  it  has  largely  supplanted  the 
clean  culture  system.  Vetch,  clover  and  other  cover-crops 
are  also  recommended.  Although  alfalfa  is  known  in  the 
West  as  a  cover-crop,  a  distinction  should  be  made  between 
the  eastern  cover-crop  planted  in  the  fall  and  plowed  under 
the  following  spring  and  the  western  cover-crop  which  is 
left  in  the  orchard  for  several  years.  In  reality  the  west- 
ern cover-crop  is  an  inter-crop,  but  since  its  purpose  is 
primarily  to  benefit  the  orchard  rather  than  to  provide 
immediate  returns  to  the  grower,  the  word  cover-crop  has 
been  retained. 


Cultivation  of  the  Orchard  161 

The  benefits  of  a  leguminous  cover-crop  as  grown  in  the 
West  (alfalfa  most  common)  are  as  follows:  (1)  supplies 
nitrogen  and  humus  —  both  limiting  factors  in  the  western 
desert  soils  which  have  been  reclaimed  by  irrigation;  (2)  is 
thought  to  have  beneficial  effect  in  controlling  apple-rosette, 
a  physiological  disease  somewhat  common  in  the  West ;  (3) 
provides  a  source  of  income  —  usually  two  cuttings  of  hay 
are  removed,  the  third  being  left.  Whether  this  is  the 
best  practice  remains  to  be  proved.  Some  investigators 
maintain  that  the  taking  of  two  cuttings  of  hay  removes 
too  much  nitrogen.  Much  depends  on  what  disposition  is 
made  of  the  hay :  whether  it  is  fed  and  returned  in  form 
of  manure  or  sold  off  the  farm;  (4)  improves  texture  of 
soil;  (5)  promotes  aeration  of  subsoil  after  plants  are 
killed  and  the  roots  decay;  (6)  permits  of  deeper  penetra- 
tion of  the  roots. 

Disadvantages  of  leguminous  shade-crop  system  may  be 
summed  up  as  follows:  (1)  shade-crops  may  rob  trees  of 
water  and  other  plant-food;  alfalfa  is  particularly  a  close 
feeder,  likely  to  crowd  young  trees;  it  should  be  grown 
only  where  water  supply  is  ample  and  strip  cultivation  is 
practiced  among  young  trees;  (2)  alfalfa  if  once  started 
is  difficult  to  eradicate;  (3)  in  some  regions,  particularly 
in  the  East,  alfalfa  is  costly  and  difficult  to  start. 

With  alfalfa  as  a  perennial  cover-crop,  soil  management 
includes  a  thorough  discing  in  the  spring.  Time  of  seed- 
ing varies  with  the  region  and  should  follow  established 
precedent.  In  passing  from  clean  cultivation  to  shade 
crops,  the  western  apple-grower  may  swerve  to  the  other 
extreme  and  allow  alfalfa  or  other  crops  to  remain  in  his 
orchard  too  long.  Clover  lends  itself  to  short  rotations 
better  than  alfalfa,  although  it  is  less  profitable.  In  any 


162  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

event,  shade-crops  should  seldom  be  allowed  to  remain 
more  than  four  or  five  years.  Cultivation  for  a  year  or 
two  will  preserve  a  judicial  balance. 

The  quantity  of  seed  to  the  acre  for  cover-crops  may  vary 
somewhat  with  the  region.  However,  the  following  table 
will  serve  as  a  rough  guide : 

TABLE  IX. —  QUANTITY  OF  SEED  TO  THE  ACRE 

Mammoth  clover 10  pounds 

Common  red  clover  10       " 

Alsike  clover 8        " 

Crimson  clover   15 

Alfalfa    20 

Cowpeas    75 

Soybeans 75 

Hairy  or  winter  vetch   50 

Summer  vetch 60 

Canada  peas    90 

Rye   75       " 

Buckwheat   60       " 

Rape    6 

Turnips 1  pound 

VALUE    OF    CULTIVATION   ANT)   METHODS 

The  philosophy  of  tillage  and  its  absolute  necessity  in 
maintaining  soil  fertility  need  as  much  emphasis  in  apple- 
growing  as  in  any  other  phase  of  agriculture.  Above  all, 
tillage  is  the  principal  determining  factor  in  moisture  con- 
servation. It  increases  the  availability  of  plant-food  by 
promoting  the  decomposition  of  organic  matter ;  it  fines  the 
soil  and  thereby  increases  the  feeding  surface  for  the  roots 
and  it  promotes  many  favorable  chemical  and  biological 
activities. 

Hard,  lumpy,  untilled  soil  will  no  more  produce  profit- 
able apple  trees  than  any  other  crop.  The  bad  effects  of 
continued  clean  cultivation  have  been  emphasized,  but  the 


Cultivation  of  the  Orchard  163 

entire  omission  of  tillage  will  be  even  more  injurious  than 
too  much  cultivation. 

Plowing  every  year  or  every  other  year  is  highly  recom- 
mended for  all  orchards  except  those  in  shade-crops  or  on 
land  unsuited  for  cultivation.  The  operation  may  be  per- 
formed either  in  the  fall  or  spring.  The  only  danger  in 
plowing  is  too  great  disturbance  of  root  systems.  For  that 
reason  regular  plowing  is  more  advisable  than  plowing  at 
intervals  of  several  years.  Most  commercial  apple-growers 
plow  from  4  to  6  inches  deep.  The  general  use  of  cover- 
crops  makes  spring  plowing  more  common.  Very  often 
discing  is  the  first  operation  in  the  spring  since  it  may  be 
done  earlier  than  plowing.  When  clover  or  alfalfa  is 
grown  in  the  orchard,  plowing  may  not  be  advisable  of  tener 
than  every  three  years. 

Early  cultivation  is  essential  to  moisture  conservation 
and  the  soil  should  be  worked  as  early  in  the  spring  as 
possible.  When  water  is  not  a  critical  factor  and  when  a 
cover-crop  is  grown,  it  is  sometimes  permissible  to  allow 
the  cover-crop  to  get  a  good  start  in  the  spring  before  turn- 
ing it  under.  In  plowing,  the  orchardist  should  plow 
toward  the  tree  one  year  and  away  from  the  tree  in  the 
next  in  order  to  prevent  the  tendency  toward  ridging.  As 
stated  above,  when  perennial  shade-crops  such  as  alfalfa 
are  being  grown,  plowing  of  course  is  not  practiced.  A 
thorough  discing  in  the  spring  is  recommended,  however, 
for  shade-crops  and  may  take  the  place  of  plowing.  (See 
Plate  VIII.) 

After  the  first  discing  or  plowing,  frequent  cultivation, 
preferably  every  two  weeks,  is  the  program'  followed  by 
most  successful  apple-growers.  By  preserving  a  soil- 
mulch  until  August,  the  critical  drought  period  usually 


164 


The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 


gill 


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Cultivation  of  the  Orchard  165 

can  be  passed  successfully.  By  that  time  it  is  difficult  to 
cultivate  among  laden  trees.  Furthermore,  cover-crops 
are  usually  sown  in  July  and  August  and  as  early  as  June. 
The  various  soil  management  systems  are  summed  up 
in  Table  X. 

IMPLEMENTS    (PLATE    ix) 

Various  tools  are  employed  by  the  successful  apple- 
grower.  For  plowing,  a  twelve-  to  fourteen-inch  plow, 
either  single  or  with  two  or  more  bottoms,  is  a  necessary 
part  of  orchard  equipment.  For  stony  land  the  spade  disc 
is  popular,  although  the  cutaway  is  more  generally  used. 
For  late  cultivation,  various  tools  are  employed.  Spike 
and  spring-tooth  harrows,  drags  and  weeders  of  various 
description  are  commonly  utilized.  In  the  West  a  light 
spring-tooth  harrow  is  very  popular.  The  latter  is  an 
excellent  tool,  stirs  the  soil  well,  and  has  many  advantages. 
Clod-mashers,  drags  or  harrows  may  be  equally  effective 
in  pulverizing  the  soil.  Special  care  and  precaution 
should  be  taken  in  working  among  trees  to  prevent  injury. 

THE  TRACTOR  IN  THE  APPLE  ORCHARD 

While  the  tractor  has  grown  rapidly  in  popularity,  use- 
fulness and  value  for  general  farm  operations  during  the 
past  decade,  there  is  probably  no  other  type  of  farming 
for  which  it  has  proved  more  universally  satisfactory  and 
profitable  than  for  commercial  fruit-growing  when  the 
acreage  is  of  sufficient  size  to  warrant  the  investment. 
There  seems  no  question  but  that  the  tractor  will  event- 
ually be  used  in  nearly  all  of  the  large  orchards  and  in 
fact  is  being  used  in  a  great  many  to-day.  In  comparing 
the  efficiency  of  the  tractor  with  horse  labor,  the  tractor 
has  the  following  advantages: 


166  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

1.  The  tractor  does  work  more  rapidly.  Cultivation, 
which  comprises  the  major  part  of  the  work  for  which 
draft  power  is  required  on  the  fruit-farm,  is  ordinarily 
restricted  to  a  comparatively  limited  period.  As  a  tractor 
works  much  more  rapidly  than  a  team,  the  orchard  may  be 
thoroughly  disced  and  harrowed  in  a  comparatively  short 
time.  The  number  of  acres  which  a  tractor  will  cover  in 
a  day  will  vary  greatly.  It  depends  entirely  on  the  make 
and  horse-power  of  the  tractor,  the  skill  with  which  it  is 
handled,  the  amount  of  turning  necessary  and  the  time  lost 
due  to  breakdowns,  and  the  like.  However,  on  the  aver- 
age, a  tractor  will  till  many  times  the  area  covered  by  a 
team  and  do  it  much  more  thoroughly. 

The  tractor  ordinarily  does  not  move  any  faster  than  a 
team,  but  it  draws  a  much  wider  disc,  harrow  or  other 
tool.  A  good  two-plow  tractor  will  pull  an  eight-foot 
double  disc  at  the  same  rate  that  a  four-horse  team  will 
draw  an  eight-foot  single  disc.  The  tractor  is,  therefore, 
doing  the  work  of  six  to  eight  horses. 

2.  A  maximum  of  work  may  be  done  at  rush  seasons  by 
use  of  the  tractor.  Since  certain  work  must  be  done  within 
limited  periods,  there  is  frequently  more  or  less  difficulty 
in  obtaining  the  necessary  help  just  when  it  is  needed. 
It  is,  therefore,  desirable  that  the  power  plant  be  large 
enough  to  permit  one  man  to  do  a  large  amount  of  work 
in  a  day  and  thereby  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  extra  help 
required.  It  is  difficult  to  use  more  than  a  two-horse  team 
in  an  orchard,  as  a  larger  team  usually  proves  unhandy 
and  unsatisfactory  among  the  trees.  In  the  case  of  large 
acreages  where  no  tractor  is  employed,  it  is  often  necessary 
to  keep  a  large  number  of  men  and  horses  at  considerable 


Cultivation  of  the  Orchard  167 

expense,   in  order  to  permit  rapid  work  in  the  proper 
season. 

3.  The  tractor  has   only  overhead   expense   when   not 
in  use,  while  it  is  necessary  to  keep  and  feed  horses  whether 
or  not  they  are  working.     Interest  and  depreciation  on  the 
tractor,  however,  are  no  small  items  of  expense.     If  the 
whole  farm  is  in  orchard,  a  larger  percentage  of  the  draft 
work  can  be  done  with  the  tractor  than  is  usually  the  case 
on  general  farms.     When  the  orchardist  buys  a  tractor,  he 
can  dispose  of  a  larger  percentage  of  his  horses  than  can 
the  general  farmer. 

4.  The    tractor    permits    thorough    work.     Since    the 
tractor  has  so  much  more  motive  power  than  a  team,  it 
can  draw  tools  which  will  cultivate  much  more  deeply  and 
thoroughly.     When  thorough  and  deep  discing  is  desired, 
tractors   are   particularly   advantageous.     Many   tractors 
draw  both  a  disc  and  harrow  at  the  same  time,  the  disc 
following  the  harrow  or  vice  versa  as  the  grower  may 
desire.     This  is  not  feasible  when  a  two-horse  team  is  used. 

5.  Less  injury  is  caused  the  trees  with  tractor.     There 
is  a  greater  danger  of  injuring  the  fruit  on  the  lower  limbs 
in   cultivating   with    teams    than    with   tractors.     Fruit- 
growers who  have  used  the  tractor  emphasize  that  it  may 
not  only  be  more  economical  in  cultivation,  but  that  it  is 
superior  to  horses  for  work  in  large  orchards.     They  claim 
that  the  tractor  does  less  damage  to  the  branches  and  trees 
than  horses,  partly  because  fewer  trips  are  required  to 
accomplish  a  given  amount  of  work  and  partly  because  the 
greater  width  of  the  implement  pulled  by  the  tractor  makes 
it  unnecessary  to  travel  as  close  to  the  trees  as  when  horses 
are  used. 


168  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

6.  A  tractor  may  work  close  to  trees.     The  tractor  can 
easily  cultivate  close  to  the  tree  row.     In  many  cases  prac- 
tically all  the  work  of  cultivation  can  be  done  when  the 
tractor  travels  in  the  center  of  the  row.     It  is  sometimes 
necessary  that  the  motive  power,  whether  horses  or  tractor, 
must  pass  under  the  limbs  and  close  to  the  trees,  but  even 
in  such  cases  the  tractor  does  considerably  less  damage 
than  horses.     A  suitable  type  of  tractor  is  not  as  high  as 
horses  and  furthermore  may  be  equipped  with  guards  to 
raise  the  limbs  gently  while  the  machine  passes  underneath 
without  breaking  the  limbs  or  jarring  off  the  fruit. 

7.  The  tractor  may  be  useful  in  doing  other  work  than 
cultivating.     The    usefulness    of    the    tractor    in    many 
orchards  is  not  confined  to  cultivation.     Growers  who  have 
used  tractors  state  that  they  save  much  time  and  expense 
in  pulling  out  trees  which  need  to  be  removed  because  of 
disease  or  crowding.     A  medium-sized  tractor  will  pull 
most  trees  without  difficulty  if  a  chain  is  fastened  well  up 
on  the  stump  or  on  some  of  the  heavy  limbs  and  then 
hitched  to  the  tractor.     Some  growers  use  the  tractor  in 
the  orchard  for  hauling  manure,  lime,  spray  materials,  and 
the  like,  and  in  rare  cases  the  spray  outfit.     While  the  full 
possibilities  of  the  tractor  have  not  been  realized,  it  must 
be  remembered  that  if  there  are  idle  horses  on  the  farm  it 
will  not  usually  be  profitable  to  employ  the  tractor  for 
work  which  two  or  three  horses  could  do. 

Tractors  have  proved  popular  and  highly  profitable  with 
most  orchardists  who  have  used  them.  It  is  well  to  state, 
however,  that  there  are  some  disadvantages  which  many 
growers  have  found  and  which  should  be  given  fully  as 
much  weight  as  the  advantages. 

1.  The  tractor  is  feasible  only  on  a  large  farm.     An 


Cultivation  of  the  Orchard  169 

ordinary  tractor  at  present  is  not  adapted  for  use  on  the 
small  farm,  particularly  a  small  intensive  fruit-farm.  It 
is  not  necessary  that  the  orchard  be  large,  but  if  the  fruit 
acreage  is  small  a  tractor  will  not  be  profitable  unless  con- 
siderable general  farm  land  is  being  operated  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  orchard.  Orchards  of  less  than  30  to  40 
acres,  unless  connected  with  a  general  farm,  will  hardly 
warrant  the  purchase  of  a  tractor  at  present  prices.  There 
should  be  at  least  twenty  days'  work  a  year  for  a  tractor  in 
order  that  it  may  be  profitable.  Four  to  5  acres  of  plow- 
ing or  18  to  20  acres  of  double  discing  may  be  considered 
a  day's  work  for  the  average  tractor.  A  two-horse  team 
will  plow  about  iy2  acres  a  day  in  the  orchard  and  disc 
from  6  to  7  acres. 

2.  A  tractor  represents  a  considerable  investment.     On 
account  of  the  initial  cost  of  a  good  tractor,  efficiency  is 
necessary  if  sufficient  returns  are  made  to  pay  such  over- 
head charges  as  interest,   depreciation,  upkeep,   and  the 
like.     A  man  of  limited  capital,  particularly  if  he  is  oper- 
ating a  young  orchard  from  which  there  is  little  cash 
return,  is  likely  to  find  a  tractor  a  rather  heavy  burden 
on  his  working  capital. 

3.  Experienced  labor  is  necessary  to  operate  and  care 
for  a  tractor.     While  the  use  of  such  a  machine  may  save 
the  labor  of  one  or  two  additional  men,  it  is  important  to 
realize  that  the  man  who  operates  a  tractor  should  be  exper- 
ienced and  have  some  knowledge  of  machinery.     When 
traced  back  to  their  origin,  it  has  been  found  that  a  great 
number  of  complaints  with  reference  to  the  use  of  tractors 
are  primarily  due  to  the  lack  of  experience  and  mechanical 
knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  operator. 

4.  There  is  a  heavy  depreciation  when  tractors  are  care- 


170  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

lessly  handled.  When  an  expensive  machine  is  operated 
by  men  who  have  little  interest  in  their  work,  it  will  rapidly 
depreciate  in  value.  Careless  handling  will  ruin  a  good 
tractor  in  a  single  season  or  even  in  a  day.  It  is  exceed- 
ingly important,  therefore,  that  care  should  be  taken  to 
keep  the  machine  properly  oiled,  and  in  good  working 
order. 

5.  When  a  tractor  gets  out  of  order,  considerable  time 
may  be  lost.  Even  with  experienced  operators,  break- 
downs may  occur,  and  if  a  part  breaks  which  can  not  be 
replaced  short  of  the  factory,  days  may  be  lost.  The  prin- 
cipal criticism  which  many  growers  have  against  the  trac- 
tor is  that  some  part  is  always  breaking  and  that  it  requires 
considerable  time  and  expense  for  repairs.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  the  average  tractor  has  given  considerable 
trouble  in  this  regard,  especially  when  handled  by  inex- 
perienced men. 

6.  Where  the  fences  are  near  the  trees,  turning  at  the  end 
of  the  row  is  rather  difficult  on  account  of  the  wide  culti- 
vating implements  commonly  drawn  by  a  tractor.  This  is 
more  particularly  true  of  the  early  tractors  than  of  the 
modern  machines  recommended  for  orchard  work.  In 
most  cases,  if  the  tractor  is  properly  hitched  to  the  imple- 
ment, the  turn  can  be  made  into  the  next  row  of  trees.  It 
is  seldom  necessary,  however,  that  the  turn  be  made  into 
the  adjoining  row,  since  the  work  of  cultivation  can  nearly 
always  be  carried  on  just  as  well  by  turning  into  the  second 
or  third  row  each  time,  following  the  same  method  as  is 
frequently  used  in  cultivating  corn  in  order  to  avoid  short 
turns.  Of  course  in  terraced  orchards  or  those  planted  in 
irregular  rows,  this  plan  can  not  be  followed.  There  is 


Cultivation  of  the  Orchard  171 

nearly  always  a  way  to  manage  the  turning  if  a  little  ingen- 
uity is  exercised. 

In  conclusion  it  may  be  said  that  the  uses  of  the  tractor 
in  fruit-growing  have  not  yet  been  fully  determined  or 
appreciated.  At  present  tractors  are  being  used  in  some 
of  the  larger  orchards  of  the  Middle  West,  Northwest  and 
middle  Atlantic  states.  They  are  becoming  more  and 
more  popular  in  connection  with  the  operation  of  orchards 
and  on  general  farms  of  western  New  York.  It  seems 
only  a  question  of  time  until  the  tractor  will  largely  dis- 
place the  team  in  cultivating  the  commercial  orchard. 

TRUCK 

The  use  of  the  motor  truck  in  connection  with  apple- 
raising  is  growing  in  popularity  as  rapidly  as  that  of  the 
tractor.  When  long  hauls  are  necessary  and  the  tonnage 
of  fruit  is  large,  the  motor  truck  has  found  great  favor. 
In  general,  the  use  of  a  truck  will  be  profitable  wherever 
the  purchase  of  a  tractor  is  warranted  and  in  many  cases 
in  which  a  tractor  is  not  profitable. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
IRRIGATION 

IEBIGATION  is  the  process  of  watering  land  by  artificial 
means  and  is  widely  practiced  in  the  arid  and  semi-arid 
apple  regions  throughout  the  western  states. 

The  history  of  irrigation  dates  from  the  earliest  times. 
Egyptian  and  Babylonian  records  show  clearly  that  irriga- 
tion was  known  several  thousand  years  B.  c.  Irrigation 
in  America  was  practiced  in  prehistoric  times  by  Indian 
tribes  of  the  Southwest,  but  the  first  irrigation  by  English 
speaking  people  of  the  United  States  was  by  the  Mormons 
near  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah.  Under  the  guidance  of  Brig- 
ham  Young,  the  Mormons  succeeded  in  turning  the  waters 
from  the  canyons  and  streams  into  the  desert  and  first 
proved  the  possibilities  of  western  irrigation.  The  history 
of  the  western  fruit  regions  in  nearly  every  case  dates 
from  the  time  that  water  was  put  on  the  land.  The  Wen- 
atchee  district  as  recently  as  1900  was  largely  a  barren 
desert.  Now  it  is  one  of  the  leading  apple  regions  of  the 
world,  producing  12,000  cars  of  box  apples  in  1919. 

Irrigation  as  a  factor  in  the  commercial  apple  industry 
of  North  America  is  confined  to  the  apple-growing  regions 
west  of  the  Mississippi  and  the  Okanogan  district  of 
British  Columbia.  It  is  most  widely  practiced  in  the 
Pacific  Northwest.  Practically  all  of  the  Idaho,  Wash- 
ington, Colorado,  Utah,  New  Mexico  and  much  of  the 

172 


Irrigation  173 

Oregon  commercial  apple  crop  is  grown  under  a  system  of 
intensive  irrigation. 

The  Hood  River  Valley  of  Oregon,  while  not  an  arid 
region,  employs  irrigation  in  many  of  its  orchards.  The 
Rogue  River  or  the  Medford  district  in  Oregon  was  form- 
erly a  non-irrigated  section  but  continued  drought  com- 
pelled the  practice  of  irrigation  when  possible.  The  only 
important  non-irrigated  apple  regions  in  the  West  are  the 
Watsonville  and  Sebastopol  sections  of  California  located 
within  a  few  miles  of  the  coast. 

The  irrigated  fruit  regions  differ  in  many  ways  from  the 
apple  sections  of  the  Central  West  and  East.  Some  of 
their  most  outstanding  characteristics  are : 

1.  Compactness.     All  irrigated  fruit  districts  are  very 
intensive    and    compact.     They    are    generally    confined 
within  a  certain  limited  and  well  defined  area.     The  typ- 
ical farms  are  small  and  the  orchards  average  only  about 
ten  to  twenty  acres.     Often  the  orchard  of  one  grower 
borders  directly  on  that  of  his  neighbor,  so  that  the  plant- 
ings in  an  irrigated  valley  appear  as  one  large  orchard 
with  but  few  breaks  of  land  not  in  trees. 

2.  Productivity.     Orchards   in   irrigated   sections   free 
from  frequent  frost-injury  bear  larger  annual  crops,  partly 
because  the  water  supply  is  largely  under  control. 

3.  Rapid  tree  growth.     Trees  in  irrigated  districts  grow 
very  rapidly  and  attain  maturity  early.     Often  trees  at 
ten  years  of  age  are  practically  in  full  bearing  and  in  many 
cases  even  at  seven  or  eight  years  of  age  they  bear  very 
heavily.     Trees  in  the  Wenatchee  Valley  attain  maturity 
in  about  one-half  the  time  required  for  the  same  varieties 
in  the  East. 

4.  Trees  are  set  close  together.     The  trees  in  the  irri- 


174  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

gated  districts  usually  will  average  twice  as  many  to  tlie 
acre  as  under  the  same  conditions  in  the  East;  that  is,  a 
ten-year-old  orchard  in  Wenatchee  will  have  from  80  to 
100  trees  to  the  acre,  while  in  New  York  40  to  50  trees 
would  be  considered  sufficient.  A  fully  matured  orchard 
in  the  northwestern  regions  will  usually  contain  as  many 
as  75  trees  to  the  acre,  while  the  New  York  growers  claim 
that  30  trees  is  sufficient.  Thus  the  trees  of  the  North- 
west do  not  attain  such  large  size  although  they  grow  more 
rapidly  and  attain  maturity  more  quickly. 

5.  Trees  of  the  irrigated  regions  have  a   shorter  life 
than    those    under    natural    or    un-irrigated    conditions. 
Although  most  irrigated  sections  are  as  yet  young,  there 
are  definite  evidences  that  the  irrigated  orchard  is  much 
shorter  lived   than   the  eastern   plantation.     Trees   that 
attain  maturity  at  such  an  early  age  under  artificial  condi- 
tions cannot  continue  to  maintain  vegetative  vigor  and 
health  indefinitely.     As  yet  it  cannot  be  said  just  what 
the  life  of  an  irrigated  orchard  under  good  management 
may  be,  but  from  present  indications  it  would  seem  that 
thirty  years  would  about  mark  the  life  of  the  average  irri- 
gated orchard.     It  is  certain  that  trees  are  ordinarily  most 
profitable   and   at  their  best  under  irrigated  conditions 
between  the  ages  of  ten  and  twenty  years. 

6.  Irrigated  regions  are^usually  free  from  fungus.     Se- 
rious trouble  only  appears  in  the  semi-irrigated  regions  like 
Hood  River  Valley  where  the  rainfall  is  as  great  as  that  in 
western  New  York,  but  where  orchards  generally  are  under 
irrigation,  due  to  the  rainfall  coming  at  the  wrong  season 
of   the   year.     There   is   little    fungus    difficulty    in    the 
famous  Yakima  and  Wenatchee  valleys  of  Washington  or 
in  the  irrigated  districts  of  Idaho,  Colorado,  Utah  and 


Irrigation  175 

New  Mexico.  In  this  connection,  however,  it  might  be 
well  to  say  that  the  codlin-moth  is  generally  very  much 
more  active  and  difficult  to  control  than  under  eastern  con- 
ditions and  particularly  has  this  been  true  of  late  years. 
7.  Trees  in  irrigated  regions  require  detailed  care  every 
year.  A  grower  in  an  irrigated  district  must  pay  strict 
attention  to  his  orchard  if  it  is  to  survive  or  he  is  to 
secure  any  profit  out  of  it.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  that 
it  be  irrigated  and  if  this  highly  important  operation  is 
neglected  for  a  single  season,  the  orchard  is  ruined.  Fur- 
thermore, if  the  irrigating  is  left  to  inexperienced  hands, 
the  trees  are  likely  to  be  over-irrigated  or  under-irrigated 
to  such  an  extent  that  they  will  be  injured  permanently. 
Great  care  also  is  necessary  to  see  that  the  water  is  not 
allowed  to  stand  on  the  land  or  applied  at  the  wrong  time. 
Under  eastern  conditions,  none  of  these  things  is  necessary, 
so  that  orchards  which  have  been  neglected  not  for  one 
year  but  perhaps  several,  may  often  be  brought  back  to 
profitable  bearing.  This,  however,  cannot  happen  in  the 
Northwest.  This  partly  accounts  for  the  fact  that  the 
average  northwestern  grower  is  as  a  rule  more  thorough 
and  scientific  than  the  average  eastern  grower.  The  north- 
western owner  must  be  thorough  or  his  orchard  will  not 
live.  The  orchard  under  eastern  conditions  can  usually 
survive  even  if  somewhat  neglected. 

8.  In  irrigated  regions  the  fruit  is  usually  graded, 
packed,  wrapped  and  boxed  very  carefully,  while  apples 
under  non-irrigated  conditions,  as  a  general  rule,  are  not 
graded  or  packed  as  carefully  and  are  seldom  wrapped. 
With  the  exception  of  California,  fruit  in  non-irrigated 
regions  is  not  boxed  to  any  great  degree.  Fruit  is  never 
barreled  in  irrigated  regions.  It  may  be  said  that  in  90 


176  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

per  cent  of  all  cases,  irrigated  regions  produce  boxed  fruit 
and  non-irrigated  regions  barreled  or  bulk  fruit. 

9.  Land  in  irrigated  regions  is  expensive  and  the  fixed 
costs  or  overhead  charges  are  high.     Bearing  orchard  land 
in  the  Wenatchee  Valley  is  capitalized  at  nearly  $2,000  an 
acre.     In  fact,  land  in  bearing  orchards  in  nearly  all  irri- 
gated districts  is  valued  at  $1,000  an  acre  or  more.     Fur- 
thermore, interest  rates  in  the  Northwest,  where  these  irri- 
gated regions  are  located,  are  higher  than  in  the  East. 
From  7  to  8  per  cent  in  the  Northwest  is  a  common  interest 
rate  which  growers  have  to  face.     Thus  it  is  important  to 
realize  that  orchards  in  irrigated  districts,  even  though  the 
acreage  is  small,  are  often  valued  and  actually  capitalized 
at  a  much  larger  figure  than  those  of  the  Central  West  and 
East  which  may  be  from  two  to  three  times  their  acreage. 

10.  Irrigated   districts   are  as  yet  somewhat  isolated, 
while    non-irrigated    localities    are    close    to    important 
markets.     The  great   bulk   of  the   fruit  from   irrigated 
regions  has  to  travel  from  1,000  to  3,000  miles  to  market. 
Only  a  very  high  grade  of  fruit  of  superior  marketable 
quality  can  hope  to  compete  successfully  with  fruit  grown 
in  eastern  districts.     At  present  the  northwestern  grower 
puts  his  fruit  up  in  such  good  condition  that  he  can  put  it 
on  the  market  in  the  heart  of  the  barreled  producing  sec- 
tion and  sell  it  quite  readily  even  if  there  is  great  barreled 
competition.     The  difficulty  of  moving  the  fruit,  due  to  car 
shortages,  has  been  a  drawback  to  the  Northwest  fruit  in- 
dustry the  past  few  years. 

The  above  points  are  important  in  differentiating 
between  the  characteristics  of  the  irrigated  and  non-irri- 
gated regions  of  the  United  States.  There  are  many  minor 
ones,  such  as  systems  of  orchard  management  which  are 


Irrigation  177 

practiced  in  irrigated  regions  and  which  differ  somewhat 
from  eastern  conditions,  but  in  general  the  above  differ- 
ences define  quite  clearly 'the  characteristics  of  the  two 
types  of  orcharding. 

CHOOSING   AN    IRRIGATED    DISTRICT 

Certain  points  are  important  to  remember  when  selecting 
an  irrigated  district.  When  the  great  orchard  irrigation 
projects  of  the  West  were  widely  advertised,  men  from 
middle  west  and  eastern  farms  and  cities  flocked  to  the 
West  and  bought  orchard  land  indiscriminately.  They 
paid,  at  first,  too  much  attention  to  scenery  and  the  adver- 
tising pamphlets  of  the  promoters.  It  did  not  seem  to 
enter  their  minds  that  such  things  as  liability  to  frost 
damage,  air  drainage,  priority  of  water  right  and  the  loca- 
tion of  the  land,  as  to  whether  it  could  be  economically 
irrigated  or  not,  were  of  great  importance.  One  of  the 
greatest  mistakes  which  early  investors  made  was  in  locat- 
ing on  land  liable  to  seepage,  that  is,  land  on  which  alkali 
showed  up  after  a  few  years  of  irrigation,  caused  either  by 
direct  irrigation  of  that  particular  plot  of  land  or  some- 
times by  the  water  seeping  down  from  the  tracts  of  land 
higher  up. 

The  definite  points  to  consider  when  locating  in  the  irri- 
gated regions  are : 

1.  The  history  of  the  region  as  regards  frosts  should  be 
studied.  Frosts  have  been  the  limiting  factor  in  success- 
ful production  in  many  parts  of  Colorado,  New  Mexico, 
Utah,  and  Idaho.  More  orchardists  have  failed  through 
frost  damage  in  successive  years  than  from  any  other  single 
factor  affecting  production.  Certain  parts  of  western 
Colorado  are  so  liable  to  frost  damage  as  to  render  profit- 


178  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

able  fruit-growing  impossible.  Frosts  seem  to  be  very 
local  in  these  irrigated  regions,  that  is,  certain  mesas  or 
limited  areas  are  much  more  liable  to  damage  than  others. 
The  most  notable  example  of  how  important  it  is  to  note 
the  liability  to  frost  in  these  irrigated  districts  occurs  in 
the  Grano1  Valley.  A  few  miles  above  the  town  of  Grand 
Junction  is  located  the  town  of  Palisades,  about  which  is 
grouped  a  very  intensive  and  highly  specialized  peach  in- 
dustry. Palisades  lies  in  a  very  narrow  part  of  the  Grand 
Valley  on  either  side  of  which  are  large  cliffs  known  as 
the  Book  Cliffs.  These  radiate  heat  during  the  night  which 
together  with  better  air  drainage  combine  so  that  frosts 
in  the  blooming  season  are  rare.  A  few  miles  down  the 
valley  and  about  Grand  Junction  itself,  frosts  are  so  com- 
mon that  fruit-growers  have  become  somewhat  discouraged. 
Peach-growing  on  this  account  has  been  entirely  elim- 
inated. Destructive  frosts  seldom  occur  in  the  Wenatchee 
Valley  of  Washington  and  rarely  in  the  Hood  Eiver  Valley 
of  Oregon.  They  occur  very  frequently  in  most  of  the 
irrigated  districts  of  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Idaho,  Utah 
and  Montana  and  in  some  of  the  irrigated  sections  of 
Oregon  and  Washington. 

2.  Land  not  liable  to  seepage  should  be  chosen.  In  some 
districts  alkali  has  appeared  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  and 
the  trees  have  lost  their  vigor  and  died.  Thousands  of 
acres  of  land  have  been  lost  in  the  Grand  Valley  of  Colo- 
rado through  this  cause  alone  and  many  have  become  bank- 
rupt who  started  out  with  the  rosiest  prospect.  Land  in 
trees  which  has  gone  to  seep  is  hardly  worth  trying  to  re- 
claim as  far  as  saving  the  orchard  is  concerned. 

It  is  extremely  important  that  irrigated  lands  be  well 
drained  so  that  water  cannot  stend  on  them  for  indefinite 


Irrigation  179 

periods.  It  is  also  important  that  these  lands  lie  so  that 
waste  water  from  orchards  which  may  be  higher  up  or 
nearer  the  irrigation  canal  does  not  continually  seep  down 
on  to  the  land  at  lower  levels. 

To  go  fully  into  a  discussion  of  alkali  and  the  danger 
and  causes  of  its  appearance  would  require  a  book  in  itself. 
It  is  sufficient  to  state  here  that  too  great  emphasis  cannot 
be  placed  on  the  problem  of  alkali  soil  and  it  is  very  im- 
portant that  the  fruit-growers  strive  to  avoid  orchard  sites 
where  it  is  present.  Enough  is  known  about  the  liabilities 
of  soils  to  seep  at  the  present  time  so  that  any  engineer 
or  topography  expert  familiar  with  the  particular  region 
should  be  able  to  state  quite  definitely  the  relative  danger 
in  this  regard.  Narrow  valleys  are  much  less  liable  to 
be  troubled  with  alkali  than  the  broader  and  larger  valleys. 
There  is  no  alkali  in  the  Hood  Kiver  Valley  of  Oregon 
and  the  Wenatchee  Valley  of  Washington  and  very  little  in 
the  Yakima  Valley. 

3.  The  third  important  point  to  be  remembered  in  select- 
ing soil  for  irrigation  is  to  see  that  the  land  can  be  irrigated 
economically.  In  numberless  instances,  orchards  have 
been  set  out  on  land  above  the  main  irrigation  canal  or  on 
land  near  no  canal  and  dependence  put  entirely  on  pump- 
ing systems  or  small  private  irrigation  systems.  In  many 
cases  orchards  irrigated  in  this  way  have  succeeded; 
however,  in  most  cases  irrigation  is  so  expensive  and 
water  has  so  often  been  difficult  to  obtain  at  the  proper 
time,  that  in  years  of  poor  prices  or  light  crops  the  grower 
has  not  been  able  to  compete  with  orchards  under  system- 
atically installed  and  bonded  irrigation  systems.  In  cer- 
tain limited  sections,  the  annual  water  rent  charge  is  as 
high  as  $25  an  acre.  This  is  prohibitive.  In  most  dis- 


180  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

tricts  it  is  between  50  cents  and  $2.50  an  acre;  $1.50  is 
about  the  average  annual  charge.  Aside  from  this,  how- 
ever, the  original  water  right  usually  costs  around  $75  an 
acre  under  private  irrigation  projects.  Therefore,  it  is 
extremely  important  when  purchasing  land  to  see  that  it 
can  be  irrigated  economically  and  that  the  annual  water 
rent  charge  is  not  prohibitive,  or  if  it  is  necessary  to  pump 
the  water  one  should  carefully  determine  whether  or  not 
this  is  feasible.  There  are  of  course  artesian  wells  in  some 
of  the  more  southern  sections,  but  as  they  occur  in  so  few 
of  the  fruit  districts  they  hardly  enter  the  discussion  here. 

4.  It  is  important  to  consider  the  priority  of  water  right. 
It  often  happens  that  growers  are  located  at  the  end  of 
the  irrigating  system  or  canal  and  in  cases  in  which  the 
water  supply  is  scarce  they  sometimes  have  insufficient 
water  for  their  orchards.  This  has  happened  sometimes 
in  the  Wenatchee  Valley  of  Washington,  where  growers  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  valley  were  insufficiently  supplied 
with  water  at  the  critical  time.  In  other  valleys  of  the 
Northwest,  many  instances  might  be  cited  where  the 
grower  has  been  forced  to  use  the  waste  water  from  the 
orchard  of  his  neighbor  in  order  to  secure  sufficient  to 
supply  his  own  land.  The  buyer  unacquainted  with  irri- 
gation and  irrigating  systems,  therefore,  should  look  care- 
fully into  the  probability  of  having  guaranteed  water 
rights.  One  year  without  irrigation  in  most  sections  will 
usually  mean  the  destruction  of  the  trees.  There  are  many 
other  points  to  be  considered,  such  as  the  proper  slope  for 
easy  irrigation. 

It  is  impossible  here  to  enter  into  the  engineering  fea- 
tures of  irrigation  and  one  should  have  the  advice  of  a 
competent  engineer  in  laying  out  the  main  laterals. 


Irrigation  181 

IRRIGATING  THE  ORCHARD 

In  the  discussion  of  orchard  irrigation,  so  many  factors 
enter  into  the  problem,  each  of  which  is  modified  to  a  great 
degree,  depending  on  the  soil,  ages  of  trees  and  various 
other  conditions,  that  no  set  of  rules  can  be  laid  down. 
The  three  problems  to  consider  in  actually  irrigating  an 
orchard  are:  amount  of  water  to  apply,  when  to  apply  it, 
and  the  means  of  application. 

Quantity  of  water  to  supply. 

When  water  is  abundant,  there  is  always  a  tendency  to 
over-irrigate.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  irrigation 
is  only  supplemental  to  natural  precipitation  and  every 
effort  should  be  made  to  conserve  the  natural  moisture. 
Excessive  irrigation  causes  leaching  of  plant-food  and  is 
injurious  to  the  soil.  The  basis  of  water  distribution  is 
variable.  In  general  it  may  be  said  to  vary  from  35  to 
100  acres  to  a  second-foot.  Expressed  in  acre-inches,  the 
average  amount  used  in  a  year  would  cover  each  acre  to  a 
depth  of  about  36  inches.  This  is  augmented  by  the 
normal  precipitation  which  in  most  irrigated  districts  does 
not  exceed  10  to  12  inches  per  annum.  The  common  unit, 
for  instance,  for  water  distribution  in  the  Wenatchee  Val- 
ley is  the  miner's  inch  (one-fiftieth  of  a  cubic  foot  a  second). 
The  prevailing  rate  of  distribution  in  this  region  is  one 
miner's  inch  to  two  acres. 

The  water  requirement  of  different  soils  is  somewhat 
variable.  With  a  rich  soil  the  water  requirement  is  rela- 
tively low,  while  with  a  leached  soil  it  is  high.  The  prac- 
tice of  growing  leguminous  shade  or  cover-crops  in  irrigated 
orchards  (usually  alfalfa)  has  appreciably  increased  the 


182  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

water  requirements.  The  Hood  River  Valley,  with  an 
average  rainfall  of  about  35  inches  per  annum,  found 
irrigation  necessary,  whenever  cover-crops  were  grown. 

Time  to  irrigate  orchards. 

In  practice,  the  fruit-grower  recognizes  the  need  of 
applying  water  by  a  slight  change  in  the  color  and  rigidity 
of  the  foliage.  It  is  unwise  to  wait  until  the  trees  begin 
to  show  signs  of  wilting,  since  this  delay  may  prove  injur- 
ious. It  is  equally  unwise  to  pour  on  water  just  because 
it  is  available.  Over-irrigation  should  be  guarded  against. 

It  is  generally  thought  that  the  amount  of  free  water  in 
the  upper  three  or  four  feet  of  soil  should  range  between 
6  to  10  per  cent.  For  the  inexperienced,  the  following 
simple  test  is  suggested :  Soil  samples  should  be  taken  from 
a  depth  of  about  3  feet.  Measure  out  6  pounds  and  4 
ounces  (100  ounces)  of  soil,  expose  this  to  a  bright  sun  for 
the  greater  part  of  a  day,  and  then  re-weigh.  The  number 
of  ounces  lost  will  correspond  to  the  percentage  of  free 
water.  If  the  loss  is  less  than  6  ounces  the  soil  probably 
should  be  irrigated.  More  than  10  per  cent  loss  will  indi- 
cate a  super-abundance  of  water. 

Number  of  applications. 

In  the  Yakima  and  Wenatchee  valleys,  the  first  irriga- 
tion is  usually  given  about  the  first  of  May,  depending 
on  the  soil,  the  slope,  and  amount  of  winter  rains.  A  south 
slope  requires  water  probably  two  or  three  weeks  earlier 
than  heavy  soil  or  a  steep  north  slope.  In  Idaho,  the 
first  application  of  water  is  usually  about  the  first  of  June, 
while  in  Hood  River  the  water  is  turned  on  between  June 
first  and  fifteenth. 


Irrigation  183 

Correct  timing  of  the  first  irrigation  is  exceedingly 
important  and  will  depend  somewhat  on  the  amount  of 
winter  rains.  It  is  thought  that  early  irrigation  tends 
materially  to  reduce  the  June  drop.  If  the  trees  are  kept 
growing  vigorously,  they  will  not  usually  suffer  excessive 
drop.  The  spraying  operations  must  be  considered  in  rela- 
tion to  the  time  of  irrigation  in  order  that  the  soil  may  be 
sufficiently  dry  to  permit  the  hauling  of  the  spray  outfit. 
It  is  desirable  that  the  water  supply  be  continuous  rather 
than  intermittent  in  order  that  the  grower  may  definitely 
plan  his  work  and  not  be  kept  waiting  for  water  at  critical 
times. 

The  number  of  irrigations  varies  but  will  average  from 
four  to  five  in  a  season,  being  made  at  intervals  of  twenty 
to  thirty  days.  A  light  sandy  soil  which  is  not  retentive 
of  moisture  must  be  irrigated  every  two  or  three  weeks. 

There  is  a  noticeable  tendency  in  late  irrigations  to 
swell  the  size  of  the  fruit.  This  practice  detracts  from  its 
keeping  qualities  and  flavor.  Excessively  large  apples 
tend  to  go  down  in  storage.  Heavy  late  irrigations,  fur- 
thermore, increase  loss  from  scald  and  bitter-pit.  It  is 
best  to  irrigate  heavily  up  until  about  August  fifteenth 
and  then  gradually  taper  off.  Ordinarily  no  irrigation 
should  be  made  after  September  fifth. 

METHODS  OF  IRRIGATION 

Originally  water  was  supplied  to  the  western  apple 
orchards  through  earthen  ditches.  With  the  increasing 
scarcity  of  water,  there  has  been  a  pronounced  tendency 
towards  lining  the  main  canals  in  order  to  make  them 
water-tight  and  to  install  underground  piping  to  distribute 
water  to  the  highest  point  in  the  orchard  or  along  the  high- 


184:  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

est  ridge.  The  use  of  concrete  or  other  underground 
piping,  together  with  standpipes,  for  carrying  the  water 
to  the  upper  end  of  the  furrows  is  unquestionably  the  most 
efficient  system  of  distribution.  Whether  such  an  invest- 
ment will  prove  economical  depends  on  the  scarcity  of 
water  and  the  returns  obtained  from  the  land.  The 
earthen  ditch  or  cheap  wooden  flume  may  be  the  more 
economical. 

The  actual  application  of  water  to  the  soil  is  usually 
accomplished  by  means  of  furrows  or  rills.  The  length 
of  the  rills  ordinarily  varies  from  200  to  600  feet,  depend- 
ing on  the  slope  and  character  of  the  soil.  With  sandy 
soils  or  steep  slopes,  the  rills  should  be  short  and  narrow 
at  the  bottom  in  order  that  washing  will  not  occur  or  over- 
irrigation  of  the  upper  end  of  the  tract  at  the  expense  of 
the  lower  lands.  With  gentler  slopes  and  heavy  soil,  the 
furrows  may  be  very  much  longer  and  also  wider  at  the 
bottom,  in  order  to  promote  percolation.  The  depth  of 
furrows  usually  varies  from  four  to  six  inches,  although 
there  is  a  tendency  towards  deeper  rilling,  eight  inches 
being  recommended  by  some  in  order  that  the  first  few 
inches  of  surface  soil  may  be  kept  partially  dry.  When 
the  top  of  the  soil  is  moist,  there  is  excessive  loss  through 
evaporation.  If  the  land  is  very  steep,  a  very  small  stream 
is  necessary  in  order  to  prevent  washing.  With  light 
porous  soils  the  furrows  are  made  shallow,  narrow  at  the 
bottom  and  relatively  close  together,  the  water  being  run 
through  quickly  and  under  a  heavy  head  of  water. 

The  number  of  furrows  in  a  tree  row  varies  from  two 
to  six,  five  being  the  most  common.  (See  Plate  X.)  The 
irrigator  tries  to  get  the  first  row  within  three  feet  of  the 
tree  row  and  spaces  the  remaining  ones  at  a  distance  of 


Irrigation  185 

three  to  four  feet  apart.  Shallow  rills  require  closer  spac- 
ing. With  very  young  trees,  a  furrow  on  either  side  of 
the  tree  row  is  usually  sufficient.  This  plan  is  also  fol- 
lowed with  mature  trees  where  a  shortage  of  water  occurs 
in  order  to  get  over  as  much  land  as  possible.  Ordinarily 
with  full  bearing  trees,  the  entire  surface  of  the  land  is 
watered. 

The  most  common  implements  for  making  furrows  are 
the  six-foot  cultivator,  with  the  three  shovels  attached  and 
the  single  shovel  plow.  The  latter  implement  is  frequently 
used  for  making  the  furrows  close  to  the  tree  rows.  A 
single  furrowing  during  a  season  usually  s-uffices  when  the 
orchards  are  in  alfalfa,  although  occasionally  the  orchardist 
finds  it  necessary  to  open  up  the  rills  late  in  the  season. 
Cultivation  between  irrigations  entails  the  replacing  of  the 
rills. 

The  operation  of  turning  the  water  on  the  land  is  termed 
a  "  set."  It  is  usually  necessary  to  make  several  sets  if 
the  orchard  is  large.  The  irrigator  turns  his  entire  head 
of  water  into  a  few  furrows  and  allows  it  to  run  from 
twelve  to  seventy-two  hours,  varying  with  the  type  and 
condition  of  the  soil.  The  water  is  allowed  to  run,  until 
by  a  slow  lateral  movement  it  saturates  the  soil  between 
the  furrows.  When  the  orchardist  finds  that  sufficient 
saturation  has  taken  place,  he  turns  the  water  into  another 
portion  of  the  orchard  and  so  on  until  the  entire  area  is 
irrigated. 

Flooding  is  practiced  in  a  limited  way  and  under  this 
system  the  water  seeks  its  own  course  over  a  strip  usually 
a  few  tree  rows  wide.  This  practice  has  been  largely 
superceded  by  furrowing. 


CHAPTER  IX 

FERTILIZING  THE  COMMERCIAL 
APPLE  ORCHARD 

FERTILIZING  is  one  of  the  many  important  orchard  oper- 
ations and  one  about  which  much  has  been  said  and  writ- 
ten, and  yet  few  definite  conclusions  have  been  published. 
Many  state  experiment  stations  and  individuals  have  exper- 
imented with  orchard  fertilizing  from  time  to  time  and 
much  has  been  written  about  the  values  of  different  sys- 
tems. In  many  cases,  however,  erroneous  conclusions  have 
been  drawn  because  of  outside  influences  which  intervened 
to  destroy  the  value  of  the  experiment.  For  that  reason 
increased  or  decreased  yields  have  been  attributed  to  the 
use  of  certain  fertilizers,  when  as  a  matter  of  fact  they 
were  due  to  other  causes.  As  a  result  of  the  many  contra- 
dictory statements  published  on  fertilizing,  this  important 
orchard  operation  is  the  one  practiced  least  systematically. 

The  wide  difference  in  soil  conditions  complicates  much 
of  the  experimental  data  on  this  subject.  Means  and 
methods  of  application  practiced  .in  the  different  regions 
are  also  variable.  In  all  experimental  reports  there  are 
some  definite  conclusions  on  which  most  investigators 
agree.  One  point  definitely  brought  out  is  the  great  value 
of  such  nitrogenous  fertilizers  as  nitrate  of  soda  and  stable 
manure  to  nearly  all  orchard  sections. 

A  prominent  investigator  of  orchard  fertilization  is  J. 
P.  Stewart,  and  long-standing  and  interesting  experiments 


Fertilizing  the  Commercial  Apple  Orchard         187 

have  been  conducted  by  the  Pennsylvania  State  College 
under  his  'direction.  The  results  of  his  work  in  general 
are  of  great  interest  and  are  more  applicable  to  the 
eastern  conditions  under  which  they  were  obtained.  Other 
important  experiments  have  been  made  by  various  state 
experiment  stations,  particularly  those  of  Ohio  and  Oregon. 
C.  I.  Lewis  and  E.  J.  Kraus  of  Oregon  have  offered  valu- 
able contributions  on  this  subject.  Thorough  investiga- 
tions have  been  conducted  by  experiment  stations  in  Ohio, 
New  York,  New  Hampshire,  Virginia,  Indiana  and  other 
states. 

PRESENT  PRACTICES  IN  FERTILIZING 

Before  discussing  the  results  and  conclusions  arrived 
at  by  these  and  other  investigators,  it  is  of  interest  to  note 
the  general  practices  followed  throughout  the  different 
commercial  areas  and  the  attitude  of  the  average  com- 
mercial grower  toward  fertilizing.  It  is  only  within  recent 
years  that  the  grower  has  given  any  great  degree  of  atten- 
tion to  this  important  subject.  However,  as  with  spray- 
ing, fertilizing  is  becoming  more  and  more  general  and 
necessary.  As  yet,  however,  great  numbers  of  growers 
do  not  realize  its  value.  Many  are  content  to  allow  their 
orchards  to  bear  very  small  or  medium-sized  crops  when  a 
few  dollars  expended  in  the  purchase  and  application  of 
stable  manure  or  commercial  fertilizers  would  greatly  in- 
crease their  returns  at  a  minimum  price  a  barrel  or  box. 
It  is  only  a  question  of  time  until  the  fertility  of  soils  will 
become  depleted.  It  remains,  therefore,  for  the  minority 
of  growers,  those  few  who  use  fertilizer,  to  convince  or- 
chardists  generally  of  the  great  value  and  increased  profit 
to  be  derived  from  judicious  use  of  various-  fertilizers. 


188  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

Throughout  the  East  and  Middle  West  it  is  rather  a 
common  practice  to  apply  stable  manure  to  the  orchard. 
This  is  particularly  the  case  in  western  New  York  where 
considerable  stable  manure  is  available  for  this  purpose, 
and  where  its  value"  seems  to  be  appreciated  as  much  or 
more  than  in  any.  other  section.  The  value  of  stable 
manure  is  recognized  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  most 
of  the  important  apple  regions  of  the  East  and  fruit- 
growers usually  apply  to  their  orchards  all  the  manure 
which  is  readily  available.  As  yet,  however,  many  grow- 
ers hesitate  to  go  to  any  considerable  expense  in  buying 
manure  from  the  cities  in  carload  lots.  In  general,  those 
who  have  adopted  the  latter  practice  have  found  that  it  is 
highly  profitable. 

In  the  Far  West,  the  practice"  of  using  stable  manure  is 
not  general.  The  orchards  are  small,  highly  intensive  and 
do  not  permit  the  keeping  of  much  live-stock.  For  this 
reason  manure  is  not  readily  available.  In  western 
orchards  the  general  method  of  securing  nitrogenous  fertil- 
izer is  by  growing  leguminous  shade  and  cover-crops.  The 
Hood  Eiver  region  in  Oregon  has  probably  used  more 
commercial  fertilizer  than  any  other  western  section. 

In  the  southern  Ohio  Rome  Beauty  district,  nitrate  of 
soda  is  employed  extensively  as  an  orchard  fertilizer. 
Annual  applications  vary  from  3  to  9  pounds  to  a  tree. 
Nitrate  of  soda  is  used  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  various 
other  eastern  districts,  but  in  no  section  isr  its  application 
so  general  as  the  Rome  Beauty  district  of  southern  Ohio. 

VALUE    OF    STABLE    MANUBE 

Xearly  all  growers  agree  that  the  beneficial  effects  of 
stable  manure  are  apparent  in  increased  tree  growth  and 


Fertilizing  the  Commercial  Apple  Orchard         189 

fruit  production.  Stable  manure  not  only  supplements 
the  available  plant-food,  but  has  the  additional  advantage 
of  keeping  the  soil  "  alive  "  and  of  adding  to  its  capacity 
to  conserve  moisture.  It  makes  the  food  already  in  the 
soil  more  available  and  permits  freer  circulation  of  air. 

It  may  be  definitely  stated  that  stable  manure  has  given 
uniformly  excellent  results  in  the  various  commercial  dis- 
tricts throughout  the  country.  (Other  fertilizers  have  not 
been  so  widely  tested.)  Annual  application,  of  8  to  10 
tons  to  the  acre  in  a  well-managed  orchard  is  usually  suffi- 
cient to  secure  good  annual  crops,  although  a  less  amount 
is  very  beneficial.  Some  growers  prefer  to  make  heavy 
applications  every  three  or  four"  years,  applying  from  25 
to  30  tons  to  the  acre,  or  from  15  to  20  tons  every  other 
year.  .  A  few  New  York  growers  are  the  most  common 
practitioners  of  this  method.  New  York  orchards  with 
their  large  and  old  trees  can  utilize  profitably  a  very  large 
amount  of  plant-food. 

Careful  cost-accounting  records  taken  on  about  400  farms 
in  the  western  New  York  apple  belt  show  that  orchards 
which  are  given  annual  applications  of  manure,  and  in 
which  leguminous  cover-crops  are  grown,  give  the  highest 
annual  yields  and  are  the  most  profitable.  , 

EXPERIMENTS    WITH    FERTILIZERS 

Research  work  of  Kraus  and  Kraybill. 

A  discussion  of  fertilizing  would  not  be  complete  with- 
out a  consideration  of  the  work  of  Kraus  and  Kraybill, 
who  have  made  the  most  exhaustive  research  investigation 
regarding  the  relation  of  plant  vigor  to  cultivation  and 
nitrogenous  fertilizer. 


190  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

These  investigators  found  that  by  dividing  plants  into 
three  groups  a  certain  definite  relation  is  brought  out 
between  the  nitrogen  and  carbohydrates  present  in  the 
different  groups.  These  groups  are.  divided  as  follows : 

Group  1.  Those  plants  which  seem  to  be  extremely  vig- 
orous but  rarely  bloom,  and  if  they  do  bloom,  set  but  little 
fruit. 

Group  2.  Those  plants  which  make  a  very  fair  growth 
and  seem  to  be  in  good  vigor,  bear  very  abundantly  and 
produce  a  large  number  of  clusters,  the  blossoms  of  which 
readily  set  fruit. 

Group  3.  Those  plants  which  are  less  vigorous  than  the 
second  group,  bloom  profusely,  but  set  fruit  very  sparingly. 

A  chemical  analysis  of  the  plants  in  these  groups  shows 
that:  (1)  those  of  the  first  group  always  contain  an  abund- 
ance of  moisture  and  nitrogenous  compounds;  (2)  those 
in  the  second  contain  a  relatively  smaller  amount  of  nitro- 
genous compound  as  compared  with  the  carbohydrates 
(sugars  and  starches)  ;  (3)  the  plants  of  the  third,  group 
contain  still  less  of  the  nitrates  and  proportionately  much 
more  of  the  carbohydrates  than  the  second  group.  It  is 
shown  rather  conclusively  from  these  experiments  that 
there  must  be  a  certain  mathematical  relation  between  the 
nitrates  and  the  carbohydrates  in  order  to  secure  the  best 
results. 

The  results  of  these  studies  directly  apply  to  the  apple. 
Examples  of  the  first  group  are  commonly  found  in  trees 
from  one  to  seven  years  of  age  which  have  a  great  abund- 
ance of  nitrogen  as  compared  with  the  amount  of  carbo- 
hydrates, such  a  condition  being  encouraged  by  intensive 
tillage,  severe  heading  of  trees  or  use  of  nitrogenous  fertil- 
izers. As  a  result,  considerable  wood  growth  but  little 


PLATE  XL —  Insect  pests  of  the  apple.  Upper,  On  left,  apples 
in  proper  condition  for  first  codlin-moth  spray;  on  the  right  too 
late  for  effective  spraying.  Middle,  Work  of  codlin-moth  or 
common  apple  worm  in  the  apple.  Loiver,  Young  apples  injured 
by  the  fruit-tree  leaf-roller,  an  insect  prevalent  in  Fremont 
County,  Colorado,  and  often  in  New  York  and  other  barreled 
sections. 


Fertilizing  the  Commercial  Apple  Orchard         191 

fruit  is  secured.  It  is  found  by  reducing  tillage,  pruning 
and  other  stimulating  operations,  that  one  automatically 
reduces  the  relative  proportion  of  raw  sap  and  nitrogen 
and  allows  the  increased  leaf  areas  to  manufacture  more 
concentrated  food,  such  as  sugars  and  starches.  As  a 
result,  such  trees  begin  to  form  buds,  produce  fruit  and 
thereby  pass  into  the  second  class. 

In  the  third  group  or  class  of  trees,  the  nitrates  have 
become  much  reduced  in  proportion  to  the  carbohydrates. 
As  a  result,  the  leaves  become  yellow  and  thin,  the  spurs 
begin  to  die  and  the  set  of  fruit  is  poor.  The  trees  are 
starving  for  nitrates  amid  plenty  of  sugars  and  starches. 
This  explains  how  a  relatively  small  amount  of  nitrate 
added  in  the  spring  often  produces  such  remarkable  results. 
It  once  more  restores  the  balance  between  the  carbohydrates 
and  the  nitrates.  When  a  proper  balance  is  seemingly 
reached  between  these  two,  the  proper  vegetative  growth 
and  fruitfulness  is  secured.  Such  trees  then  would  be 
classed  in  Group  2  and,  therefore,  approach  the  ideal  con- 
dition for  fruitfulness.  Every  effort  should  be  made  to 
maintain  them  in  this  condition.  Good  cultivation,  the 
growth  of  legumes  or  moderate  applications  of  nitrate  of 
soda  will  usually  serve  to  maintain  the  proper  balance 
between  the  nitrates  and  carbohydrates.  Acid  phosphates 
may  also  be  necessary. 

Experiments  in  Pennsylvania. 

In  a  series  of  experiments  carried  out  under  the  direc- 
tion of  J.  P.  Stewart  in  Pennsylvania,  the  following  con- 
clusions seemed  to  be  more  or  less  definitely  established: 

1.  It  was  found  that  nitrogen,  of  all  food  elements,  was 


192  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

the  most  influential  in  improving  both  annual  yield  and 
growth. 

2.  In  order  to  dispel  any  apprehension  of  great  expense 
involved  in  applying  nitrate  of  soda,  it  may  be  stated  that 
during  a  ten-year  period  nitrate  of  soda  was  applied  at  a 
cost  of  9  cents  a  bushel  of  fruit  produced,  or  27  cents  a 
barrel ;  and  as  nitrate  was  figured  at  a  war  time  cost  of 
$100  a  ton,  this  shows  that  even  with  a  very  high  price  the 
great  increase  in  yield  would  soon  pay  for  the  fertilizer. 
In  these  experiments,  nitrate  of  soda  was  applied  at  the 
rate  of  4  to  8  pounds  to  a  tree. 

1  3.  "  It  was  found  that  nitrogen  from  commercial 
sources  or  from  stable  manure  proved  more  effective  than 
that  from  cover-crop  as  a  rule."  Xitrogen  from  commer- 
cial fertilizers  and  from  stable  manure  was  particularly 
effective  when  accompanied  with  the  proper  cultural 
methods. 

4.  "  The  addition  of  phosphorus  or  potash  to  nitrogen 
applications  has  usually  given  larger  returns  than  nitrogen 
alone.     The  nitrogen  and  phosphorus  combination  has  pro- 
duced an  average  increase  over  the  normal  yields  in  two 
experiments  of  265  and  308  bushels  per  acre  annually  dur- 
ing  9-   and  10-year  periods.     This  combination  is   also 
proving  important  in  one  of  the  experiments  in  young 
orchards.     In  at  least  three  of  the  other  bearing  orchards, 
however,  the  addition  of  phosphorus  has  resulted  in  no 
important  benefit." 

5.  "  Neither  phosphorus  nor  lime,  when  used  alone,  has 
shown  any  important  influence  on  either  yield  or  growth 
in  apples.     Lime  may  often  have  some  indirect  value,  how- 
ever, through  its  favorable  influence  on  leguminous  covers 

i  Quotations  from  State  Coll.  Bull.,  No.   153. 


Fertilizing  the  Commercial  Apple  OrcJiard         193 

or  intercrops,  and  possibly  as  an  accompaniment  of  fertil- 
izer applications.  In  the  latter  relation  its  chief  effect 
has  been  on  growth.  Phosphorus  is  also  generally  valu- 
able in  connection  with  leguminous  covers." 

6.  Potash,  when  applied  alone,  gave  an  increased  yield 
in  some  experiments,  a  material  increase  in  a  few,  but  in 
some  instances  had  an  injurious  effect.     On  account  of  the 
impossibility  of  defining  just  what  the  soil  needs  without 
experimentation,  it  is  better  to  defer  general  use  of  potash 
until  definite  evidence  of  its  value  is  secured.     This  can 
be  done  through  a  home  experiment  as  outlined  later  in 
this  chapter. 

7.  "  The  red  color  in  apples  can  not  be  increased  mate- 
rially by  any  kind  of  fertilization,  although  potash  and 
possibly  phosphorus  may  sometimes  assist  very  slightly. 
These  colors  are  directly  dependent  on  sunlight  and  matur- 
ity,  with   the  latter   occurring   preferably   on   the  tree. 
Hence  such  influences  as  normal  development,  late  picking, 
light  soils,  open  pruning,  and  mildly  injurious  or  defoliat- 
ing sprays  are  the  chief  practical  means  of  increasing  the 
reds  in  fruits,  while  opposite  conditions  tend  to  decrease 
them." 

8.  "  The  distinctly  retarding  influence  of  nitrogenous 
fertilizers  and  manure  on  color  is  simply  due  to  delayed 
maturity,  and  is  often  an  advantage  in  the  case  of  the  more 
northern  varieties,   such   as   Baldwin,   Hubbardston   and 
Hclntosh,  when  grown  in  Pennsylvania.     In  such  varie- 
ties, the  color  reduction  is  readily  overcome  by  deferring 
the  picking.     With  the  York  Imperial  and  similar,  long- 
seasoned  varieties,  however,  it  may  also  be  necessary  to  use 
nitrogen  more  sparingly  and  to  utilize  the  other  direct 
aids  to  color  as  much  as  possible." 


194  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

9.  "  In  these  experiments,  fertilization  has  usually  had 
very  little  influence  on  the  average  size  of  the  fruit.     This 
is  apparently  because  it  acted  primarily  in  increasing  the 
total  amount  of  fruit  and  foliage  on  the  tree,  both  of  which 
influences  tended  to  decrease  the  average  size  of  the  fruit. 
Manure,  however,  usually  secured  a  fair  increase  in  size, 
probably  chiefly  because  of  its  moisture-conserving  effect. 
The  importance  of  moisture  is  evident  from  the  fact  that 
water  forms  about  85  per  cent  of  the  average  fruit.     The 
chief  means  of  increasing  the  size  of  the  fruit,  therefore, 
are  proper  thinning  and  moisture  conservation." 

10.  "  Evidence  elsewhere  indicates  that  the  time  of  ap- 
plication  is   important,   especially  for  nitrogen.     It   ap- 
pears that  nitrogen  carried  in  nitrate  of  soda  may  often 
distinctly  increase  the  crop  of  the  current  season  if  the 
application  is  made  at  the  right  time.     This  time  seems  to 
be  about  when  the  buds  are  beginning  to  open  in  the  spring, 
or  slightly  later.     When  the  applications  are  made  much 
later  than  this,  or  when  the  slower-acting  carriers  of  nitro- 
gen are  used,  such  as  dried  blood  or  manure,  no  important 
effects  should  be  expected  before  the  following  year.     The 
later  applications,  however,  are  often  used  in  steadying  the 
yields    from    year    to    year    and    hence    should    not    be 
neglected."     It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  above 
conclusions  are  more  applicable  to  the  East. 

There  is  a  variance  in  opinion  among  experimenters  as 
to  how  soon  an  appreciable  influence  is  derived  from 
application  of  nitrate  of  soda.  Some  feel  that  if  applied 
well  in  advance  of  the  bloom,  it  will  materially  increase  the 
set  of  blossoms  the  same  season.  It  is  more  commonly 
thought  that  since  the  morphology  of  the  bud  is  determined 
in  the  preceding  season,  the  application  of  nitrate  can  have 


Fertilizing  the  Commercial  Apple  Orchard         195 

little  or  no  effect  on  the  set  of  blossoms  of  the  current 
season. 

It  has  been  found  that  many  failures  with  potash  and 
phosphorus  are  due  to  a  deficient  nitrogen  supply.  It  is 
quite  a  common  belief  that  if  fertility  is  low  all  the  ele- 
ments of  plant-food  are  needed,  when  very  often  the  soil 
is  deficient  only  in  one  or  two  elements.  Potash  and  phos- 
phorus, if  not  actually  required,  may  tend  to  check  or  bal- 
ance any  ill  effects  of  nitrogen.  Therefore,  it  is  generally 
recommended  by  Stewart  that  for  the  average  orchard, 
an  application  of  500  pounds  to  the  acre  of  6-8-5  fertilizer 
be  employed.  This  means  a  fertilizer  carrying  6  per  cent 
of  nitrogen,  8  per  cent  phosphorus  and  5  per  cent  potash. 
If  commercial  fertilizer  is  not  used  and  stable  manure  is 
available,  it  is  recommended  that  about  8  tons  of  the  latter 
be  applied  annually  to  an  acre,  especially  when  the  trees 
indicate  the  immediate  need  of  fertilizing.  Commercial 
nitrogenous  fertilizer,  especially  nitrate  of  soda,  is  quicker 
in  action  than  manure,  and  the  same  is  claimed  for  sul- 
fate  of  ammonia.  It  is  generally  concluded  that  in  case 
of  young  trees  stable  manure  is  more  satisfactory,  as  it 
usually  furnishes  all  deficient  elements  of  plant-food 
needed  for  growth.  A  good  system  for  mature  trees,  under 
middle  western  and  eastern  conditions,  is  to  apply  nitrate 
of  soda,  4  to  8  pounds,  acid  phosphate,  6  to  8  pounds,  and 
muriate  of  potash,  2  or  3  pounds  to  a  tree.  Of  these  fertil- 
izers, nitrogen  is  the  most  important  and  likely  to  be  most 
needed. 

Nitrate  experiments  by  Lewis. 

The  Oregon  experiments  by  Lewis  have  brought  out 
some  additional  conclusions  with  regard  to  the  application 


196  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

of  nitrogen  and  at  the  same  time  have  confirmed  several 
of  the  results  obtained  elsewhere.  While  Stewart  recom- 
mends 4  to  8  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  to  a  tree,  Lewis 
advises  3  to  4  pounds.  This  difference  in  opinion,  how- 
ever, may  be  accounted  for  by  the  variance  in  conditions. 
The  Lewis  recommendations  refer  to  northwestern  condi- 
tions where  the  trees  are  much  smaller  than  those  of  the 
East,  while  Stewart's  findings  are  more  applicable  to  the 
older  and  larger  trees  of  the  East.  The  recommendations 
and  results  emphasized  by  Lewis  as  applying  particularly 
to  the  northwestern  conditions  are  as  follows: 

1.  An  application  of  5  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  quickly 
restored  devitalized  trees. 

2.  The   benefits    of   nitrate   application   were    quickly 
apparent,  as  shown  in  the  dark  green  foliage. 

3.  Nitrates  stimulated  the  wood  growth. 

4.  Nitrate  of  soda  produced  much  more  attractive  blos- 
soms and  a  much  better  set,  even  in  the  current  season 
when  application  was  made  a  month  in  advance  of  the 
bloom.     (Some  experimenters  disagree.) 

5.  A  much  larger  percentage  of  the  bloom  set  fruit  on 
fertilized  trees  than  in  the  case  of  trees  which  had  not 
received  this  treatment. 

6.  There  is  a  greater  tendency  for  the  fertilized  tree  to 
bloom  more  annually  and  evenly. 

7.  It  was  shown  very  conclusively  that  nitrate  of  soda  is 
the  cause  of  greatly  increased  yields. 

8.  Xitrate  has  a  direct  effect  on  the  marketable  quality 
of  the  fruit,  causing  the  specimens  or  individual  apples  to 
become  much   larger   than   those   on   unfertilized    trees. 
This  is  somewhat  at  variance  with  Stewart's  conclusions 


Fertilizing  the  Commercial  Apple  Orchard         197 

which  were  to  the  effect  that  the  size  of  the  fruit  is  little 
affected  by  fertilizer. 

9.  The  degree  of  color  on  red  varieties  receiving  nitrate 
was  not  as  high  on  the  whole  as  those  which  received  none, 
but   good   commercial    color    was    easily    secured    unless 
amounts  of  nitrate  used  were  excessive. 

10.  It  was  found  that  up  to  a  certain  amount,   the 
response  to  nitrate  of  soda  was  in  direct  proportion  to  the 
quantity  of  fertilizer  used.     However,  3  to  5  pounds  to  a 
tree  under  normal  conditions  was  more  satisfactory  than 
larger  amounts.     Some  applications  in  excess  of  5  pounds 
to  a  tree,  although  increasing  the  total  fruit  produced, 
lowered  the  color  to  a  point  seriously  detracting  from  the 
commercial  quality. 

11.  It  was  found  that  the  influence  of  nitrate  was  more 
marked  in  heavy  crop  years  than  in  years  of  light  produc- 
tion. 

12.  The  benefits  from  the  use  of  nitrate  extended  over 
a  period  including  two  seasons  from  the  date  of  applica- 
tion. 

13.  The  greatest  benefit  came  from  applying  nitrate  to 
devitalized    trees    which    had    received   continuous    clean 
tillage. 

14.  Best  results  were  obtained  when  nitrate  was  applied 
about  a  month  before  the  tree  bloomed. 

It  was  found  at  the  Oregon  station  that  Yellow  New- 
town  trees  which  received  early  fertilizing  averaged  7.9 
boxes  to  a  tree  while  late  fertilized  trees  averaged  much 
less.  In  the  case  of  the  Esopus  (Spitzenburg),  the  early 
fertilized  trees  averaged  10.83  boxes  to  a  tree  while  the 
late  fertilized  trees  averaged  much  less.  The  results  of 


198  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

this  experiment  indicate  that  application  must  be  made 
early  if  appreciable  effects  are  to  be  obtained  the  current 
season.  By  comparing  such  experimental  data  as  is  avail- 
able at  the  present  time  and  from  data  secured  from  indi- 
vidual growers  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  the  authors 
recommend  early  application  of  nitrate  of  soda,  preferably 
a  month  before  blooming.  This  recommendation  applies 
to  both  eastern  and  western  conditions. 

AMOUNT  OF  FEETFLIZEB  TO  A  TEEE 

The  amount  of  fertilizer  to  be  applied  must  necessarily 
vary  with  the  size,  age  and  vigor  of  the  tree.  Although 
nitrogen  is  likely  to  be  the  most  needed  element,  if  orchard 
soils  show  general  depletion,  an  application  of  acid  phos- 
phate 6  to  10  pounds  to  a  tree  and  muriate  of  potash  2  to 
3  pounds  to  a  tree,  as  well  as  nitrate,  is  usually  advisable. 
Under  northwestern  conditions,  5  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda 
to  a  bearing  tree  is  probably  sufficient  to  restore  fertility. 
Under  eastern  conditions  where  trees  are  older  and  fruit- 
ing surface  is  greater,  larger  amounts  are  advisable,  6  to  8 
pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  to  a  tree  being  usually  recom- 
mended. These  amounts  are  for  trees  which  show  a  dis- 
tinct need  of  fertilization.  Lesser  amounts  will  suffice 
where  need  is  not  so  evident  If  trees  are  healthy,  but 
are  still  making  only  small  annual  growth,  if  foliage  tends 
to  be  pale  green  or  yellow  and  also  sparse  in  the  late  sum- 
mer or  fall,  and  if  crops  are  only  medium  to  light,  it  is 
highly  probable  that  fertilization  will  be  profitable  and 
particularly  the  application  of  nitrate  of  soda.  To  deter- 
mine the  needs  of  the  soil,  some  actual  test  should  precede 
any  wide  general  treatment.  As  a  rule,  young  healthy 
orchards  do  not  require  fertilizing.  Older  orchards  will 


Fertilizing  the  Commercial  Apple  Orchard        199 

usually  respond  to  moderate  applications  of  nitrate  of 
soda,  even  though  they  may  have  no  clear  indication  of  the 
need.  In  such  cases,  the  amounts  to  be  applied  should 
be  reduced. 


NEEDS   OF   IRRIGATED   REGIONS 

The  importance  of  nitrogen  as  the  limiting  element  of 
plant-food  is  emphasized  under  western  irrigated  condi- 
tions where  the  nitrogen-content  of  the  soil  is  soon 
exhausted  unless  replenished  by  the  growing  of  legumes  or 
by  application  of  manure  or  commercial  fertilizer.  The 
system  of  clean  culture  with  irrigation,  practiced  so  exten- 
sively at  one  time  in  the  Northwest,  caused  more  or  less 
rapid  depletion  of  humus  and  nitrogen.  The  results  of 
this  harmful  practice  became  very  evident  in  the  famous 
Hood  River  Valley  of  Oregon.  In  about  1915,  the 
orchards  of  this  well-known  region  were  producing  rather 
small  annual  crops ;  the  foliage  was  beginning  to  take  on 
a  yellow  appearance,  particularly  in  the  non-irrigated 
orchards  where  no  leguminous  shade-crops  were  grown. 
It  became  apparent  that  some  change  in  orchard  manage- 
ment was  necessary  to  bring  back  the  yields  and  vigor  of 
the  trees  to  normal.  It  was  in  these  circumstances  that  the 
value  of  nitrate  of  soda  was  demonstrated.  While  the 
importance  of  nitrates  as  commercial  fertilizers  is  recog- 
nized in  the  Pacific  Northwest,  and  particularly  in  Ore- 
gon, the  value  of  acid  phosphate  and  potash  commonly 
recommended  in  the  East  in  conjunction  with  nitrates  has 
not  been  established  in  the  irrigated  regions.  In  other 
words,  eastern  orchards  more  commonly  require  general 
fertilization,  while  northwestern  plantings  are  not  likely 


200  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

to  require  anything  but  nitrogen.  This  need  is  being  sup- 
plied in  part  by  the  quite  general  practice  of  growing 
leguminous  shade-crops. 

NITBATE  OF  SODA 

Nitrate  of  soda  as  a  fertilizer  will  be  more  and  more 
widely  used.  At  first  the  commercial  apple-growers  looked 
askance  at  this  means  of  maintaining  soil  fertility,  there 
being  a  theory  that  once  given  nitrate  of  soda  treatment  a 
tree  would  require  continual  stimulation.  This  theory  has 
been  disproved,  however,  and  a  single  application  of  nitrate 
of  soda  may  prove  beneficial  whether  later  applications  are 
made  or  not.  Continued  moderate  application  at  intervals 
of  about  two  years  may  prove  desirable,  however. 

Hood  River,  Oregon,  has  been  mentioned  as  one  region 
in  which  this  form  of  fertilization  has  proved  profitable. 
The  value  of  nitrate  of  soda  is  also  recognized  in  the 
Ozarks,  southern  Indiana,  western  Michigan,  in  Virginia 
and  particularly  in  southern  Ohio.  Wherever  the  soil 
is  naturally  deficient  in  nitrogen  or  where  the  nitrogen 
has  been  exhausted  through  the  planting  of  other  crops, 
this  deficiency  can  and  should  be  quickly  remedied. 

METHODS    OF    APPLYING    FEETILJZEES 

It  may  not  always  pay  to  apply  commercial  fertilizers 
indiscriminately  to  all  trees  in  an  orchard.  In  other 
words,  one  may  profitably  single  out  trees  which  are  in  need 
of  treatment  and  omit  others.  In  the  average  orchard, 
there  will  be  many  trees  which  are  growing  vigorously  and 
fruiting  well.  At  the  same  time,  there  are  likely  to  be 


Fertilizing  the  Commercial  Apple  Orchard        201 

trees  which  are  growing  indifferently  and  not  bearing  well. 
These  latter  are  in  need  of  fertilization.  It  is,  therefore, 
a  good  plan  to  go  through  the  orchard  and  tag  such  trees 
in  the  summer  so  that  they  may  be  manured  or  fertilized 
the  following  spring  according  to  their  individual  needs. 

The  common  method  of  applying  commercial  fertilizer 
is  simply  to  scatter  it  broadcast  under  the  trees  from  two 
weeks  to  a  month  before  bloom,  care  being  taken  not  to 
get  it  too  close  to  the  trunk.  Application  should  extend 
well  out  beyond  the  spread  of  the  branches  in  order  to 
conform  more  closely  with  the  usual  distribution  of  the 
feeding  roots.  Heaviest  application  should  be  made  over 
the  area  covered  by  the  outer  two-thirds  of  the  branches. 
Fertilizer  may  be  left  on  the  surface  to  be  carried  down  by 
the  rain  or  it  may  be  harrowed  or  lightly  plowed  into  the 
soil.  Barnyard  manure  may  be  applied  at  almost  any 
time,  although  applications  late  in  the  growing  season  are 
likely  to  over-stimulate  wood  growth.  Winter  dressings 
are  most  common. 

With  nitrate  of  soda  good  results  have  been  secured  by 
dividing  the  amounts  to  be  applied  into  two  parts,  making 
the  first  application  about  a  month  in  advance  of  the  bloom 
and  the  second  about  a  month  after  the  fruit  has  set. 
Favorable  responses  have  been  obtained  from  second  ap- 
plications as  late  as  July.  The  rate  of  the  second  appli- 
cation may  vary,  according  to  the  size  of  the  crop  which 
the  tree  is  carrying,  heavier  application  being  profitable  in 
full  crop  years.  The  double  application  of  nitrate  of 
soda  is  credited  with  a  tendency  toward  steadying  and 
maintaining  annual  yield.  In  most  regions  this  fertilizer 
is  scattered  broadcast  in  dry  form,  largely  on  the  area  cov- 


202  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

ered  by  the  outer  two-thirds  of  the  branches.  In  a  few 
regions  where  spring  rains  are  infrequent,  liquid  applica- 
tions have  proved  advisable. 

PRUNING    WITH    REFERENCE    TO    FERTILIZING 

In  connection  with  fertilizer  studies,  it  has  been  found 
that  efforts  toward  building  up  the  soil  and  improving 
fruitfulness  should  be  accompanied  by  regular  and  moder- 
ate pruning  throughout  the  entire  tree.  Excessive  head- 
ing back  or  heavy  thinning  of  branches  should  be  avoided 
unless  the  trees  have  entered  such  a  decline  as  to  necessi- 
tate the  encouraging  of  heavy  wood  growth. 

FERTILIZER    TESTS 

It  is  concluded  from  the  foregoing  discussion  that  soil 
fertility  is  of  utmost  importance  and  should  be  carefully 
maintained.  Careful  orchard  management  and  the  use  of 
commercial  fertilizer  when  necessary  should  forestall  the 
depletion  of  plant-food.  It  has  been  emphasized  that  the 
critical  factor  in  soil  fertility  of  leading  apple  regions  is 
available  nitrogen  supply.  In  regions  in  which  yields  are 
low  and  trees  show  pale  foliage  and  lack  of  vigor,  it  is 
highly  probable  that  the  application  of  nitrogen  fertilizer 
will  be  profitable.  It  is  simple  to  conduct  a  test  with  a 
few  trees  and  the  results  are  quickly  apparent.  In  many 
instances  the  increased  yields  will  cover  the  added  cost  of 
the  fertilizer  many  times  over.  It  is  anticipated  that 
nitrogen  fertilizer  will  become  more  and  more  popular 
among  commercial  apple-growers. 

A  good  orchard  test  is  suggested  by  Stewart,  although 
most  commercial  growers  hesitate  to  go  to  the  trouble  of 
making  it.  The  importance  of  testing  fertilizers  is  appar- 


Fertilizing  the  Commercial  Apple  Orchard        203 

ent  when  one  realizes  the  marked  difference  in  results  ob- 
tained in  separate  experimental  orchards.  It  is  wise  to 
try  fertilizing  on  a  small  scale  before  assuming  any  large 
financial  risks. 

"  This  test  should  be  located  in  a  typical  section  of  the 
orchard  and  include  not  less  than  six  average  trees  of  the 
same  variety  and  age  in  each  plot.  It  is  also  best  to  have 
the  trees  in  double  TOAVS  whenever  possible  and  the  plots  by 
a  single  row  left  unfertilized.  All  trees  should  be  labeled 
and  carefully  measured  at  a  fixed  point  on  the  trunk,  and 
the  applications  and  exact  records  of  both  yield  and  growth 
should  be  maintained  for  at  least  three  years.  Good  in- 
dications of  an  orchard's  needs  may  often  be  obtained  in 
much  less  time,  but  at  least  this  period  should  be  allowed. 

(Eates  are  stated  for  each  mature  tree  in  bearing.) 

1.  Check  (unfertilized). 

2.  Nitrate  of  soda,  5  Ibs. 

3.  Nitrate,  5  Ibs.;  acid  phosphate  (16  per  cent  P2  O5), 
8  Ibs. 

4.  Nitrate  of  soda,  5  Ibs.;  potash  (50  per  cent,  K2O), 
2  Ibs. 

5.  Check. 

6.  Acid  phosphate,  8  Ibs. ;  potash,  2  Ibs. 

7.  Nitrate,  5  Ibs. ;  acid  phosphate,  8  Ibs. ;  potash  2  Ibs. 

8.  Manure,  400  Ibs. 

9.  Check. 

"  Other  carriers,  such  as  ammonium  sulphate  or  dried 
blood,  may  be  used  for  the  nitrogen;  and  bone  meal  or 
possibly  ' floats'  may  be  used  for  the  phosphorus.  The 
present  materials  are  likely  to  be  best  in  the  absence  of 
cultivation,  however,  and  they  are  also  quicker  in  their 
action  as  a  rule." 


204  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

GENERAL    SUMMARY    AND    SPECIFIC    RECOMMENDATIONS 

(1).  Cost  production  studies  emphasize  the  importance 
of  high  yields.  Judicious  fertilization  is  a  direct  method 
of  increasing  yields. 

(2).  Nitrogen  is  the  limiting  element  of  plant-food  in 
most  orchards.  It  can  be  supplied  best  in  one  of  the 
following  ways : 

(a)  Barnyard  manure,  8  to  10  tons  to  the  acre  an- 
nually. 

(b)  Nitrate  of  soda,  applied  two  to  four  weeks  be- 
fore bloom;   3  to  5  pounds  to  a  mature  tree 
under  western  conditions;  4  to  8  pounds  to  a 
tree  under  eastern  and  middle  western  condi- 
tions.    Amount  varies  with  age,  size  and  vigor 
of  tree. 

(c)  Growing  of  such  leguminous  shade-  and  cover- 
crops  as  alfalfa,  clover  or  vetch. 

(3).  Xitrogen  tends  somewhat  to  increase  the  size  of 
the  fruit,  particularly  on  weak  trees.  It  increases  the 
number  of  fruits  more  noticeably.  It  may  reduce  color 
by  checking  maturity. 

(4).  Phosphorus  and  potash  applied  in  conjunction 
with  nitrogen  have  given  generally  better  results  than 
nitrogen  alone.  This  has  not  been  definitely  established 
under  western  and  some  eastern  conditions. 

(5).  Potash  may  improve  color  to  slight  degree. 

(6).  The  application  of  about  6  to  8  pounds  of  nitrate 
of  soda ;  7  to  9  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  and  from  2  to  3 
pounds  of  potash  to  a  mature  tree  may  be  considered 
full  treatment  for  soils  generally  depleted  in  fertility. 
Local  tests  should  be  made  before  extensive  application  of 


Fertilizing  the  Commercial  Apple  Orchard        205 

commercial  fertilizer  is  made,  since  conditions  vary  exceed- 
ingly in  different  orchards. 

(7).  Two  to  four  weeks  before  bloom  is  the  time  rec- 
ommended for  applying  nitrate  of  soda.  Other  fertilizers 
may  be  applied  at  the  same  time.  Method  of  application 
is  by  broadcasting  fertilizer  principally  on  the  area  under 
the  outer  two-thirds  of  bearing  surface  of  tree. 

(8).  Over-application  of  commercial  fertilizers  is  to 
be  avoided.  Unfruitfulness  is  not  always  due  to  depleted 
soil  fertility.  Tests  in  fertilization  should  be  conducted  to 
determine  needs. 

(9).  Barnyard  manure  is  an  excellent  fertilizer  for 
apple  orchards,  particularly  for  young  trees  when  rapid 
wood  growth  is  desired ;  also  for  old  trees  which  need 
stimulation  to  produce  normal  annual  growth. 

(10).  Leguminous  cover-crops  are  very  important  in 
maintaining  humus  and  nitrogen  supply,  and  very  often 
obviate  the  necessity  of  applying  commercial  fertilizer. 

(11).  Some  olcf  orchards,  particularly  in  western  New 
York,  apparently  do  not  respond  to  commercial  fertilizers 
but  this  does  not  mean  that  commercial  fertilizers  are  not 
valuable  under  most  conditions. 


CHAPTER  X 

DISEASES  AND  PESTS  OF  THE  APPLE  AND 
THEIR  CONTROL 

IN  recent  years  much  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
study  of  insects  and  diseases  attacking  the  different  fruits. 
It  is  impracticable  here  to  describe  all  of  the  pests  which 
are  found  on  the  apple  and  for  fuller  accounts  the  reader 
is  referred  to  the  "  Manual  of  Fruit  Insects  "  by  Slinger- 
land  and  Crosby  and  "Manual  of  Fruit  Diseases"  by 
Hesler  and  Whetzel. 

IMPOETANT  INSECT  ENEMIES  OF  THE  APPLE 

The   codlin-moth    (Carpocapsa  pomonella).     (See   Plate 

XL) 

This  insect,  of  European  origin,  is  widely  disseminated, 
being  present  in  practically  all  of  the  important  apple 
regions  of  the  world.  In  the  United  States  it  is  recognized 
as  the  most  serious  insect  enemy  of  the  apple  and  is  respon- 
sible yearly  for  a  great  loss  of  fruit.  The  codlin-moth, 
more  commonly  known  as  the  "  apple  worm,"  feeds  within 
the  fruit,  causing  the  so-called  "  wormy  apple."  In  the 
early  part  of  the  season  much  of  the  wormy  fruit  falls 
to  the  ground,  but  the  fruit  attacked  later  is  not  so  likely 
to  drop.  In  regions  in  which  this  pest  is  abundant,  many 
of  the  apples  as  they  near  maturity  are  frequently 
"  stung."  This  refers  to  the  small  shallow  excavations 
206 


Diseases  and  Pests  of  the  Apple  and  Their  Control      207 

through  the  skin  made  by  the  worms  before  they  succumb 
to  the  poison. 

The  seriousness  of  this  insect  is  somewhat  variable  from 
season  to  season  and  in  different  fruit-growing  districts. 
In  the  eastern  states  the  codlin-moth  can  be  controlled  by 
One  to  three  thorough  spray  applications.  In  the  Middle 
West  and  in  the  arid  fruit-growing  regions  of  the  West, 
the  insect  is  more  difficult  to  control,  often  requiring  six 
to  seven  sprays.  It  thrives  especially  under  the  warm 
dry  climatic  conditions  of  the  West,  whereas  its  develop- 
ment in  the  East  is  retarded  by  the  occurrence  of  rains  and 
periods  of  cool  weather.  The  number  of  broods  is  in- 
fluenced by  weather  conditions  as  indicated  by  the  fact 
that  there  are  four  broods  in  the  Pecos  Valley  of  New 
Mexico  while  in  Maine  there  is  practically  but  one,  the 
second  brood  being  very  small. 

The  codlin-moth  passes  the  winter  in  the  worm  or 
larval  stage,  within  a  small  silken  cocoon  which  is  nor- 
mally spun  beneath  the  loose  bark  of  the  trunk.  By  the 
time  the  apples  are  in  bloom,  many  of  the  worms  have 
changed  to  the  pupal  state,  after  which  they  further  trans- 
form and  issue  as  moths.  The  eggs  are  deposited  on  the 
leaves  and  sometimes  on  the  fruit  itself.  The  worms 
hatch  usually  in  six  to  ten  days,  depending  on  the  weather, 
and  soon  eat  their  way  into  the  fruit  if  it  is  not  properly 
protected  by  poison. 

Before  proper  control  measures  can  be  applied,  it  is 
essential  to  know  the  life  history  of  the  codlin-moth.  It 
is  important  to  have  information  on  the  number  of  broods 
and  the  time  when  each  brood  is  hatching  in  maximum 
numbers.  It  will,  therefore,  be  readily  appreciated  that 
no  one  spraying  schedule  will  be  applicable  in  all  fruit- 


208  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

growing  districts,  but  instead  a  spraying  scheme  that  will 
meet  local  conditions  should  be  adopted. 

The  following  suggestion  will  be  helpful  in  controlling 
the  codlin-moth:  (1)  Arsenate  of  lead  powder  should  be 
used,  2  pounds  of  the  paste  to  50  gallons  of  water  or 
fungicide.  (2)  The  importance  of  thorough  spraying  for 
the  calyx  treatment  can  not  be  too  strongly  emphasized. 
This  application  may  be  started  when  85  to  90  per  cent  of 
the  blossoms  have  dropped  and  must  be  completed  before 
the  calyces  have  closed.  (See  Plate  XI.)  The  calyx  cups 
should  be  literally  drenched  to  insure  filling  each  one  with 
the  poison.  The  spray  should  be  applied  with  nozzles 
throwing  a  coarse  spray  under  a  pressure  of  200  to  225 
pounds.  The  upper  parts  of  the  trees  should  be  sprayed 
from  a  tower.  (3)  In  regions  in  which  the  codlin-moth  is 
serious,  every  effort  should  be  made  to  reduce  the  first  brood 
as  much  as  possible.  .  If  necessary,  three  cover  sprays 
should  be  made  for  this  brood:  (a)  Just  before  the  worms 
begin  to  hatch  (three  to  four  weeks  after  the  calyx  spray)  ; 
(b)  as  the  worms  are  hatching  in  large  numbers  (ten  to 
twelve  days  after  a)  ;  (c)  as  the  late  hatching  first-brood 
worms  are  appearing  (ten  to  twelve  days  after  b). 

If  the  first  brood  is  not  practically  eradicated,  no  sub- 
sequent spraying  will  eliminate  wormy  and  "  stung  "  fruit. 
In  order  to  catch  the  first-brood  worms  that  have  escaped 
being  poisoned,  it  would  be  well  either  to  band  the  trees 
or  to  employ  the  codlin-moth  trap.  A  large  proportion 
of  the  first-brood  worms  transform  in  a  few  weeks  to  moths, 
the  females  of  which  are  capable  of  laying  as  many  as  300 
second-brood  eggs.  From  this  the  fruit-grower  will  realize 
the  importance  of  killing  as  many  first-brood  worms  as 
possible.  In  spite  of  the  above  precautions,  however, 


PLATE  XII. —  San  Jos6  scale:      (a)   natural  size;    (b)    enlarged; 
(c)  appearance  of  this  pest  in  the  apple. 


Diseases  and  Pests  of  the  Apple  and  Their  Control      209 

some  worms  will  escape  both  the  poison  and  the  mechanical 
means  of  capture  and  it  will,  therefore,  be  necessary  to 
spray  for  the  later  broods. 

The  following  spray  schedules  are  suggested : 

Schedule    I    (One    spray).       (1)  Calyx  spray. 
Schedule   II    (Two   sprays).     (1)   Calyx  spray. 

(2)  3  to  4  weeks  after  1 
Schedule  III  (Three  sprays).  (1)   Calyx  spray. 

(2)  3  to  4  weeks  after  1 

(3)  8  to  10  weeks  after  1 
Schedule  IV    (Five   sprays).  (1)  Calyx  spray. 

(2)  3  to  4  weeks  after  1 

(3)  5  to  6  weeks  after  1 

(4)  8  to  10  weeks  after  1 

(5)  12  to  14  weeks  after  1 
Schedule    V    (Six    sprays).      (1)   Calyx  spray. 

(2)  3  to  4  weeks  after  1 

(3)  5  to  6  weeks  after  1 

(4)  6  to  7  weeks  after  1 

(5)  8  to  10  weeks  after  1 

(6)  12  to  14  weeks  after  1 

Maine  to  Connecticut:  Frequently  schedule  I  will  suf- 
fice, but  if  not  schedules  II  or  III  should  be  em- 
ployed. 

New  York  to  Virginia:  In  some  fruit  districts  within 
these  states  schedule  I  will  give  satisfactory  commer- 
cial control  of  the  codlin-moth.  Where  it  is  more 
abundant,  schedules  II  or  III  will  be  necessary. 

Ohio  to  Michigan:  Usually  schedule  III  will  give  satis- 
factory control. 


210  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

Illinois  to  Arkansas:  There  is  considerable  variation 
in  the  relative  infestation  of  the  codlin-moth  in  these 
states.  In  some  fruit  districts  schedule  III  will  suf- 
fice, while  in  others  schedules  IV  or  V  should  be 
employed. 

Kansas,  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Utah:  The  severity  of 
the  codlin-moth  in  these  states  varies  to  a  considerable 
degree  and  the  best  spray  schedule  for  each  fruit- 
growing district  will  depend  on  the  local  conditions. 
In  many  of  these  districts,  schedule  V  should  be  em- 
ployed, supplemented  by  banding  or  the  codlin-moth 
trap. 

Idaho,  Washington,  Oregon,  California:  In  many  of  the 
fruit-growing  valleys  in  these  states  the  codlin-moth  is 
a  pest  of  first  rank,  requiring  for  best  control  schedule 
V  together  with  banding  and  the  use  of  the  codlin- 
moth  trap. 

San  Jose  scale  (Aspidiotus  pemiciosus).  (See  Plate 
XII.) 

The  San  Jose  scale  is  one  of  the  most  common  and  inju- 
rious apple  pests.  It  is  widely  distributed  throughout 
practically  every  commercial  apple  region.  The  mature 
scale  is  gray  in  color,  circular,  and  about  the  size  of  a  pin- 
head.  A  nipple-like  protuberance  in  the  center  distin- 
guishes it  from  other  scales  of  similar  appearance.  The 
scale  is  merely  an  excretion  for  protection;  the  louse  is 
bright  lemon  in  color  and  when  crushed  emits  a  percepti- 
ble juice. 

Annual  spraying  with  lime-sulfur  (30°-33°  Baume) 
1  to  8  is  recognized  as  proper  treatment.  It  is  desirable 
to  delay  the  application  until  early  spring,  at  a  time  when 


Diseases  and  Pests  of  the  Apple  and  Their  Control      211 

there  will  be  the  greatest  hold-over  effect  against  young 
scale.  This  occurs  just  as  buds  are  swelling.  For  badly 
crusted  infestation  of  scale,  crude  petroleum  oils  are  ef- 
fective. As  a  rule,  San  Jose  scale  is  now  well  controlled 
by  spraying.  Control  measures  are  directed  particularly 
to  protect  the  fruit  from  infestation. 

Oyster-shell    scale     (Lepidosaphes    ulmi).     (See    Plate 
XIII.) 

The  oyster-shell  is  another  common  scale  insect  which  is 
not  as  serious,  however,  as  the  San  Jose.  The  shape  is 
distinctive  and  resembles  very  closely  a  long  narrow  oyster- 
shell.  It  is  about  l/s  inch  long,  brown  in  color,  although 
sometimes  grayish.  Oyster-shell  scale  is  not  so  widely  dis- 
tributed as  San  Jose  scale  nor  is  it  usually  a  menace  in 
regions  where  the  latter  is  serious.  It  seems  to  prefer  a 
higher  altitude. 

The  dormant  lime-sulfur  spray  is  not  as  effective  in  the 
control  of  oyster-shell  as  of  San  Jose  scale,  yet  in  most 
instances  it  seems  to  control  both  insects.  Two  or  three 
weeks  after  the  blooming  period,  the  old  oyster-shell  scales 
begin  to  loosen  and  the  young  lice  start  to  crawl  about. 
Application  of  distillate  oils,  kerosene  emulsion,  or  lime- 
sulfur  (1  to  35)  is  usually  effective  at  this  time.  Nico- 
tine sprays,  1  to  200,  are  also  effective  although  somewhat 
more  expensive. 

Apple  aphids. 

Four  well-known  species  of  plant-lice  affect  the  apple. 
Two  of  these,  the  oat  aphis  and  the  green  aphis  are  green- 
ish in  color  and  feed  chiefly  on  the  foliage,  causing  it  to 
curl.  The  third  species  is  commonly  called  the  rosy  apple 


212  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

aphis  (Aphis  sorbi)  because  of  its  pinkish  to  purplish  color. 
This  louse  is  a  more  serious  pest  than  the  others  since  it 
not  only  attacks  the  foliage,  but  also  causes  severe  damage 
to  the  young  apples.  (See  Plate  XV.)  These  injured 
fruits,  known  sometimes  as  "  aphis  apples,"  are  frequently 
much  dwarfed  and  distorted  in  shape  and  have  no  com- 
mercial value.  The  fourth  species  is  the  woolly  aphis 
(Schizoneura  lanigera),  easily  recognized  by  its  whitish, 
cotton-like  appearance,  particularly  when  in  colonies. 
This  species  feeds  chiefly  on  the  twigs,  axils  of  the  leaves, 
the  trunk,  especially  where  the  outer  bark  has  been  in- 
jured, and  the  roots.  (See  Plate  XIV.) 

The  life  history  of  plant-lice  is  somewhat  complicated 
and  worthy  of  brief  mention.  The  oat  aphis  and  rosy 
aphis  migrate  to  other  host  plants  in  the  summer,  but 
return  in  the  fall  to  deposit  their  eggs  on  the  apple  twigs. 
The  green  apple  aphis  breeds  on  the  apple  during  the 
entire  season  as  does  also  woolly  apple  aphis,  although  the 
latter  has  an  alternate  host  plant  in  the  elm. 

The  control  of  plant-lice  is  difficult,  but  by  careful  and 
timely  spraying  satisfactory  results  can  be  obtained.  The 
oat,  green  and  rosy  aphids  hatch  in  the  spring  about  the 
time  the  green  tips  of  the  foliage  appear.  The  lice  con- 
gregate upon  these  tips  and  soon  commence  to  feed. 

It  is  in  this  short  period  that  the  fruit-grower  has  the 
best  chances  of  effecting  control  by  thorough  spraying  with 
a  contact  insecticide,  as  nicotine  sulfate  (40  per  cent)  at 
the  rate  of  1  to  1066  (%  pint  to  50  gallons  of  water  to 
which  has  been  added  2  to  3  pounds  of  soap).  If  it  is 
desired  to  spray  for  the  San  Jose  scale,  it  may  be  done  at 
this  time,  thus  giving  the  tree  the  so-called  "  delayed  dor- 
mant "  treatment  for  the  San  Jose  scale  and  apple  aphids. 


Diseases  and  Pests  of  the  Apple  and  Their  Control      213 


The  best  spray  combination  for  this  treatment  is  standard 
lime-sulfur  solution  1  to  8  plus  40  per  cent  nicotine  sulf ate 
1  to  1066  (3/8  pint  to  50  gallons).  The  soap  should  not 
be  used  when  lime-sulfur  is  employed  as  they  are  not  com- 
patible. 

The  above-ground  colonies  of  the  woolly  apple  aphis 
may  best  be  treated  in  the.  summer  by  a  drenching  spray 
of  10  per  cent  kerosene  emulsion.  The  nicotine  spray 
does  not  penetrate  the  woolly  covering  of  these  lice  as  well 
as  the  oil  spray,  otherwise  the  nicotine  solution  might  be 
used.  As  yet,  no  satisfactory  method  of  combating  the 
woolly  aphis  on  the  roots  has  been  found,  but  growing  trees 
on  resistant  stock,  as  the  Northern  Spy,  is  desirable  in 
regions  in  which  this  pest  is  troublesome.  In  spraying  all 
plant-lice  it  is  important  to  remember  that  these  are  suck- 
ing insects. 

Plum  curculio  (Conotrachelus  nenuphar'). 

The  mature  insect  is  a  snout- 
beetle  which  punctures  the 
young  fruit  in  the  early  stages 
and  causes  misshapen  fruit. 
Codlin-moth  sprays  serve  to 
check  plum  curculio  although 
control  may  not  be  entirely  ef- 
fective. Infestation  is  favored 
when  orchards  are  in  sod  or 
grown  up  to  weeds.  Where 
this  pest  is  prevalent,  an  ar-  ^  8 

senical   should  be   added   to  the     the    egg   and    feeding   punc- 

pink   spray   application.     (See    tures  °f  the  P[um  «u.rcl?i° 

?  f     J       r*  as    well     as    the    distorted 

llg.  3.)  shape  of  the  fruit  attacked. 


214  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

Apple  red  bugs. 

Red  bugs  (Heterocordylus  malinus  and  Lygidea  men- 
dux)  have  come  into  prominence  chiefly  in  New  York  state. 
They  do  not  seem  to  have  spread  to  the  Middle  or  Far 
West,  although  they  are  more  prevalent  in  Connecticut  and 
on  up  through  New  England  into  Nova  Scotia.  These 
insects  puncture  the  apples  early  in  the  season,  causing 
them  to  drop  before  maturity  or  to  be  misshapen  and  un- 
dersized. Nicotine  sulfate,  1  to  800,  combined  with  the 
pink  spray  for  the  scab  has  given  best  results.  A  repe- 
tition of  the  nicotine  application  with  the  calyx  spray 
may  be  necessary. 

Apple-tree  tent-caterpillar  (Malacosoma  americana). 

The  ordinary  spray  program  including  lead  arsenate 
usually  controls  the  tent-caterpillar  and  rarely  is  it  a 
serious  pest.  The  nests  may  be  destroyed  with  torches  and 
the  egg-masses  may  be  detached  and  removed  while  the 
trees  are  leafless.  (See  Plate  XV.) 

Round-headed  apple-tree  borer  (Saperda  Candida). 

This  insect  may  be  particularly  injurious  to  young  apple 
trees  and  even  matured  ones.  The  larvaB  attack  the  trees 
near  the  base  and  feed  for  the  first  season  under  the  bark, 
later  tunneling  deeper  into  the  wood  during  the  second  and 
third  years.  In  infested  orchards,  trees  should  be  wormed 
annually  with  a  knife  and  wire.  Painting  the  trunks  with 
pure  white  lead  and  oil  from  a  few  inches  below  the  ground 
to  a  foot  above  may  serve  as  a  repellent  and  reduce  egg 
deposition  by  the  adult  beetle.  Egg  deposition  begins  in 


Diseases  and  Pests  of  the  Apple  and  Their  Control      215 

May  and  June  and  is  continued  until  August  or  Sep- 
tember.    (See  Plate  XIII.) 

Cut  worms. 

Cutworms  are  sometimes  injurious,  particularly  in 
young  orchards  planted  near  timber.  The  worms  work 
chiefly  at  night,  feeding  on  the  buds  and  tender  foliage. 
During  the  day  they  may  be  found  in  the  soil  at  a  depth 
of  about  an  inch.  A  poison  bran  mash  deposited  near  the 
trunk  of  the  trees  acts  as  a  control  measure. 

Bud-moth  (Tmetocera  ocellana). 

In  well-sprayed  orchards,  the  bud-moth  is  not  as  a  rule 
injurious.  The  caterpillars  of  this  insect  pass  the  winter 
in  little  cases  near  the  buds  and  when  growth  starts  in 
the  spring  they  feed  within  the  small  leaves,  folding  them 
together  with  silken  threads.  Late  broods  attack  the  ap- 
ples by  burrowing  into  the  flesh.  Arsenate  of  lead,  2 
pounds  paste  to  50,  in  the  scab  spray  is  usually  effective 
against  this  insect,  although  an  earlier  arsenical  spray  may 
be  necessary. 

The  fruit-tree  leaf-roller  (Archips  argyrospila) . 

This  insect  is  especially  injurious  in  New  York,  Mis- 
souri and  Colorado,  often  stripping  fruit-trees  and  ruining 
many  of  the  young  fruits.  The  most  efficient  method  of 
control  is  to  destroy  the  eggs  early  in  the  spring,  using 
miscible  oil,  1  part  to  19  parts  of  water ;  or  a  10  per  cent 
kerosene  emulsion  may  be  used.  Arsenical  sprays  are 
necessary  to  kill  the  insects,  6  pounds  arsenate  of  lead  in 
100  gallons  of  water,  making  the  first  application  as  soon 


216  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

as  the  buds  begin  to  burst,  and  the  second  when  the  blos- 
som buds  in  the  cluster  begin  to  separate.  (See  Plates 
XI,  XIII.) 

IMPORTANT  APPLE   DISEASES 

Apple-scab  (Venturia  pomi). 

The  scab  is  probably  the  most  widely  distributed  and 
most  destructive  apple  disease.  It  thrives  in  cool  moist 
climates  and  is  particularly  injurious  in  western  New 
York,  New  England  and  Michigan.  Occasionally  it 
causes  heavy  losses  in  cool  rainy  seasons  in  Illinois  and 
other  middle  western  regions.  The  Hood  River  and 
Rogue  River  valleys,  Oregon,  are  the  only  western  apple 
regions  which  have  suffered  materially  from  scab.  The 
fact  that  severe  scab  attacks  are  intermittent  and  depend 
largely  on  the  season  is  likely  to  cause  growers  to  become 
careless  and  an  unexpected  scab  year  very  often  proves 
disastrous.  (See  Plate  XVI.) 

The  disease  is  evidenced  by  brown  or  grayish  spots  on 
fruit  and  leaves.  Badly  attacked  apples  may  be  dwarfed 
and  very  often  crack  open.  The  disease  is  spread  by 
means  of  spores  and  lives  over  the  winter  on  fallen  leaves. 

Limes-sulfur  1  to  35,  in  combination  with  lead  or  nico- 
tine if  desired,  is  effective  against  scab.  Applications 
should  be  made  (1)  in  the  pink  just  before  the  blossoms 
open;  (2)  in  the  calyx;  and  (3)  two  to  three  weeks  later. 
The  first  two  sprays  are  the  most  important,  since  the  fun- 
gus becomes  active  with  the  starting  of  growth  in  the 
spring.  Late  applications  of  lime-sulfur  are  sometimes 
necessary  in  bad  seasons.  While  a  three-spray  program 
usually  suffices,  it  does  not  always  serve  in  seasons  when 


Diseases  and  Pests  of  the  Apple  and  Their  Control      217 

spore  development  is  particularly  favorable.  Only  those 
growers  who  make  two  and  even  three  late  sprays  are  able 
to  produce  reasonably  clean  fruit  under  such  conditions. 

Apple-blotch  (Phyllosticta  solitaria). 

This  is  essentially  a  middle  western  apple  disease,  being 
particularly  injurious  in  southern  Illinois  and  Indiana, 
in  the  Ozarks,  southern  Kansas  and  occasionally  in  the 
Missouri  River  region  about  St.  Joseph.  Most  susceptible 
varieties  in  these  states  are  Missouri  Pippin,  Northwest 
Greening  and  Ben  Davis. 

The  disease  attacks  the  fruit,  leaves  and  twigs,  wintering 
over  in  twig  cankers.  Injury  to  the  fruit  is  most  serious 
and  appears  in  the  form  of  hard  roughened  brown  spots, 
irregular  in  shape  and  sometimes  sunken.  Three-cornered 
cracks  in  the  fruit  are  characteristic  of  the  disease. 

Bordeaux  mixture  (3-4-50)  is  considered  most  effective 
against  apple-blotch,  and  lime-sulfur  (1-35)  in  a  lesser 
degree.  The  latter  with  the  calyx  spray  and  three  Bor- 
deaux sprays  at  intervals  of  about  three  weeks,  begin- 
ning two  to  three  weeks  after  the  petals  fall,  is  recom- 
mended as  an  effective  program  against  severe  apple- 
blotch.  The  first  Bordeaux  spray  is  most  important. 

Sooty-blotch  and  fly-speck  (Leptothyrium  pomi). 

This  disease  does  not  penetrate  the  skin,  but  detracts 
greatly  from  the  appearance  of  the  fruit.  It  appears  in 
two  manifestations,  the  former  in  large  sooty  blotches  and 
the  latter  as  minute  black  spots  on  the  skin  of  the  apple. 
These  diseases  are  usually  controlled  by  the  regular  sum- 
mer fungicides.  (See  Plate  XVI.) 


218  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

Cedar-rust  (Gymnosporangium  juniperirvirginiance} . 

In  some  regions,  particularly  in  the  Virginias,  the  cedar- 
rust  has  become  a  serious  menace.  It  appears  on  the  apple 
in  bright  yellow  spots  as  large  as  %  to  %  inch  in 
diameter.  In  the  yellow  area  are  small  black  specks  or 
pustules.  The  foliage  is  similarly  affected  and  late  in 
the  season  blisters  or  cushions  are  found  on  the  under- 
side of  the  leaves.  The  cutting  down  of  all  cedar  trees 
within  a  radius  of  at  least  a  mile  is  the  principal  correc- 
tive measure. 

Bitter-rot  (Glomerella  rufomaculans) . 

Bitter-rot  is  very  serious  in  certain  commercial  apple 
regions  in  the  South,  particularly  in  the  Piedmont  district 
of  Virginia  and  in  parts  of  the  Ozarks.  The  fungus 
works  in  the  tissue  of  the  apple,  causing  first  small  light 
brown  spots  just  beneath  the  skin  of  the  apples.  These 
spots  may  increase  rapidly  in  size,  attaining  a  diameter  of 
an  inch  or  more,  and  are  usually  sunken.  Occasionally 
the  apple  assumes  a  peppered  appearance  and  with  yellow 
varieties  as  the  Newtown,  the  margins  of  the  spots  may  be- 
come purple  or  reddish  in  color.  (See  Plate  XVI.) 

The  disease  is  spread  by  spores,  transmitted  by  rain 
drops,  insects  or  birds.  It  may  appear  any  time  between 
the  middle  of  June  and  the  middle  of  September,  being 
favored  by  warm  moist  seasons.  The  Yellow  Newtown  or 
Albemarle  Pippin  is  very  susceptible  and  Ben  Davis, 
Gano,  Grimes  and  Jonathan  more  or  less  so. 

Bordeaux  mixture  (4-4-50)  applied  from  June  15  to 
July  1,  July  15  to  20  and  August  1  to  5  is  generally  con- 
sidered the  best  control  program.  The  disease  winters 


Diseases  and  Pests  of  the  Apple  and  Their  Control      219 

over  on  mummied  fruit  and  in  cankers  in  the  bark. 
These  sources  of  infection  should  be  removed  when  the 
disease  is  bad. 

Blister-canker  (Nummularia  discreta). 

This  canker,  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  Illinois  blister- 
canker,  is  the  most  destructive  apple  disease  in  the  Middle 
West.  It  is  particularly  prevalent  in  the  Illinois,  Ozark 
and  Missouri  River  regions  where  it  has  caused  heavy  loss 
in  trees.  The  fungus  gains  entrance  strictly  through 
wounds  in  the  roots  or  branches.  The  initial  cankers 
produced  by  the  disease  vary  in  size  from  2  to  18  inches 
in  length  and  from  ^  to  6  inches  in  width.  Their  ap- 
pearance very  often  resembles  that  of  cankers  produced 
by  winter-injury,  sun-scald,  blight  o£  collar-rot,  except 
that  blister-canker  affects  not  only  the  bark,  but  also  the 
wood.  The  bark  becomes  shrunken  and  assumes  a  darker 
color  and  the  cankers  increase  in  size  as  long  as  the  branch 
remains  alive.  The  disease  is  spread  by  means  of  spores 
and  infected  wood. 

Unfortunately,  the  most  important  varieties  of  the  Mid- 
dle West  are  the  most  susceptible  to  this  disease,  namely 
Ben  Davis  and  Gano.  The  Delicious,  though  not  widely 
grown  in  these  regions,  is  also  susceptible.  Oldenburg, 
Wealthy,  Winesap  and  Jonathan  are  more  resistant. 
WThole  trees  often  appear  to  die  in  a  single  season  although 
as  a  matter  of  fact  the  infection  has  probably  been  present 
for  several  seasons,  but  has  been  invisible  from  the  outside. 
The  disease  makes  rapid  progress  in  drought  years. 

Treatment  must  be  preventive  rather  than  curative. 
Once  infected,  a  tree  can  be  saved  only  by  the  removal  of 
the  infected  wood.  Fortunately,  vigorous  well-cared-for 


220  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

trees  are  very  much  less  susceptible  to  the  disease  than 
slow-growing  neglected  individuals.  As  stated  above,  in- 
fection always  enters  through  wounds  and  for  this  reason 
all  pruning  and  other  wounds  should  be  disinfected  and 
covered.  White  lead  and  oil  or  liquid  asphaltum  are  rec- 
ommended as  suitable  coverings  for  wounds.  A  mixture 
of  two-thirds  coal-tar  and  one-third  creosote  serves  not  only 
as  a  covering,  but  also  as  a  disinfectant.  Cheap  grades  of 
these  materials  are  adequate. 

Heavy  pruning  encourages  rather  than  checks  the 
disease  and  for  this  reason  should  be  avoided  in  regions 
where  blister-canker  is  serious.  Preventive  measures  may 
be  summed  up  as  follows:  (1)  Avoid  heavy  pruning; 
(2)  disinfect  and  paint  all  wounds;  (3)  remove  all  infec- 
tions from  diseased  trees;  (4)  select  resistant  varieties; 
(5)  keep  trees  vigorous. 

Collar-rot. 

The  seriousness  of  collar-rot  has  become  apparent  in 
many  commercial  apple  orchards  and  the  cause  of  this 
injury  has  been  the  subject  of  considerable  study.  Cer- 
tain varieties  such  as  Grimes,  the  trunk  wood  of  which 
does  not  harden  fully  for  the  winter  and  which  for  that 
reason  is  more  subject  to  injuries  from  alternate  freezing 
and  thawing,  seem  more  susceptible  to  collar-rot  than 
others.  Collar-rot  on  Grimes  is  also  sometimes  attributed 
to  fire-blight.  The  connection  of  certain  fungi  have  been 
associated  with  collar-rot  injury,  but  at  the  present  time 
there  is  no  authentic  publication  which  describes  the  iso- 
lation of  any  particular  fungus  responsible  for  the  injury 
for  which  specified  treatment  is  recommended.  Trees  in 


PLATE  XIII. —  Insect  enemies  of  the  apple.  (1)  The 
fruit-tree  leaf-roller  egg  mass  from  which  the  young  cater- 
pillars have  hatched;  (2)  The  rounded-headed  apple-tree 
borer  in  its  tunnel  at  the  base  of  a  young  apple  tree;  (3) 
The  oyster-shell  scale:  (left)  scale  turned  over  to  show 
eggs;  (middle)  mature  scale:  (right)  young  scale. 


Diseases  and  Pests  of  the  Apple  and  Their  Control      221 

low  wet  ground  or  near  irrigation  ditches  are  sometimes 
susceptible  to  collar-rot. 

In  working  about  trees,  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
scrape  the  bark  or  cause  wounds  at  or  about  the  collar. 
Such  wounds  may  permit  the  entrance  of  either  sapro- 
phytic  or  parasitic  fungi. 

Observations  have  been  made  of  the  successful  removal 
of  infected  or  rotted  tissues  after  which  bridge-grafting 
or  the  planting  and  grafting  in  of  young  trees  about  the 
base  of  the  trees  has  resulted  in  the  saving  of  many  collar- 
rotted  trees.  The  practice,  while  recommended  for  iso- 
lated cases,  is  hardly  advisable  on  a  large  scale.  The 
process  is  expensive  and  not  always  successful. 

Fire-alight  (Bacillus  amylovorus). 

Fire-blight  or  pear-blight  is  a  bacterial  disease  which 
affects  both  apples  and  pears  and,  while  less  serious  on 
apples,  it  is  responsible  for  heavy  loss  in  apple  regions. 
The  disease  is  caused  by  microscopic  bacteria  working  just 
underneath  the  bark  in  growing  tissues  of  the  trees. 

The  presence  of  blight  is  generally  evidenced  during  the 
growing  season  by  a  wilting  of  the  leaves  and  branches 
above  infected  parts.  The  disease  winters  in  hold-over 
cankers  which  at  the  beginning  of  spring  growth  exude 
drops  of  infected  gum.  Insects  are  attracted  to  the  sweet- 
ened gum  and  very  often  carry  the  germs  with  them  from 
flower  to  flower  during  the  period  of  pollination.  Bees 
are  well-known  carriers  of  the  disease  and  aphids  very 
often  spread  infection  through  feeding  punctures.  The 
first  sign  of  blight  in  the  spring  is  usually  apparent  when 
the  infected  blossom-spurs  begin  to  wither  and  die,  result- 


222  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

ing  in  what  is  known  as  twig-blight.  Confusion  very 
often  results  from  the  use  of  such  terms  as  twig-blight, 
blossom-blight  and  trunk-blight.  In  reality  they  are  syn- 
onymous, being  merely  different  names  to  designate  the 
part  of  the  tree  infected. 

Fire-blight  is  more  or  less  prevalent  in  all  apple  regions, 
but  has  been  particularly  serious  in  the  Pacific  Northwest 
on  account  of  the  presence  there  of  susceptible  varieties. 
The  Esopus  (Spitzenburg)  is  more  subject  to  blight  than 
any  other  leading  commercial  variety.  Spitzenburg  or- 
chards in  the  Yakima  Valley  have  suffered  severely  in  bad 
blight  years.  On  the  other  hand,  the  heavy  Spitzenburg 
plantings  in  the  Hood  River  Valley,  Oregon,  have  been 
very  little  injured.  It  is  difficult  to  say  just  how  far 
local  climatic  and  soil  conditions  affect  the  spread  of  this 
disease,  but  unquestionably  they  are  important  factors. 

Preventive  measures  consist  in  checking  wood  growth. 
Blight  works  on  tender  succulent  wood.  Aphids  unques- 
tionably are  active  in  spreading  this  disease  and  their  con- 
trol is  important. 

After  infection,  the  removal  of  the  diseased  portion  is 
the  only  treatment.  In  the  care  of  infected  branches,  the 
cut  should  be  made  about  ten  inches  below  the  last  visible 
sign  of  the  blight.  Wounds  should  be  disinfected  with 
cyanide  of  mercury,  1  to  500 ;  tools  should  be  disinfected 
with  corrosive  sublimate,  1  to  1,000. 

Apple  rosette. 

The  apple  rosette  is  a  physiological  disease  more  or  less 
prevalent  in  certain  regions,  particularly  in  the  North- 
west. The  disease  is  evidenced  by  a  shortening  of  the 
terminal  growth.  Buds  are  crowded  together  by  a  failure 


Diseases  and  Pests  of  the  Apple  and  Their  Control      223 

of  the  branch  to  elongate.  The  result  is  a  whorl  of  leaves 
at  the  tip  and  an  absence  of  leaves  along  the  side  of  the 
limb,  which  lends  to  the  branch  somewhat  the  appearance 
of  a  feather-duster.  The  exact  cause  of  apple  rosette  is 
unknown.  Abnormal  soil  condition  or  insufficient  nour- 
ishment mav  be  responsible.  In  the  Northwest  the  sow- 
ing of  alfalfa  in  affected  orchards  has  seemed  to  exert  a 
beneficial  effect.  Good  orchard  practice,  designed  to  pro- 
mote normal  growth  of  the  trees,  seems  the  principal  cor- 
rective measure. 

Baldwin-spot. 

This  form  of  fruit-pitting  is  probably  a  physiological 
disease  due  to  abnormal  plant  growth.  More  and  more 
emphasis  is  being  placed  on  good  orchard  management 
as  a  correction  to  such  physiological  affections.  The 
maintenance  of  soil  fertility  and  correct  soil  management 
are  of  particular  importance.  In  the  Pacific  Xorthwest, 
regular  irrigation  with  neither  too  much  nor  too  little  water 
is  essential  in  controlling  such  diseases. 

An  internal  browning  has  been  more  or  less  prevalent 
in  the  Newtowns  grown  at  Watsonville,  California.  Ex- 
periments in  controlling  this  latter  disease  have  been  con- 
ducted for  a  number  of  years,  but  the  disease  is  still  puz- 
zling to  horticulturists. 

ANIMAL    PESTS    OF    THE    APPLE 

Meadow  mice. 

The  field  or  meadow  mouse  has  become  a  menace  in 
many  orchard  regions,  particularly  in  the  South  where  the 
sod-mulch  provides  harbor.  The  mice  attack  the  trees  by 


224  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

gnawing  the  bark  from  the  trunk  at  or  near  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  Most  of  this  injury  is  accomplished  in  the 
winter  under  cover  of  snow,  although  it  may  occur  any 
time  during  the  year. 

The  runways  of  meadow  mice  are  found  entirely  on 
the  surface  of  the  ground  under  weeds,  leaves,  brush  and 
similar  litter.  Ordinarily,  orchard  sanitation,  including 
the  removal  of  trash  and  litter  from  about  trees  and  fence 
rows,  will  suffice  to  control  this  pest,  although  poisoning 
may  be  necessary  for  bad  infestation. 

Pine  mice. 

The  pine  mouse  is  not  dissimilar  to  the  field  mouse  except 
that  it  is  smaller  and  reddish-brown  instead  of  the  charac- 
teristic grayish-brown  color  of  the  field  mouse.  While  the 
field  mouse  is  more  widely  distributed  throughout  the 
country,  the  pine  mouse  is  more  injurious  and  more 
greatly  feared  in  regions  where  it  is  prevalent.  The  Vir- 
ginias have  suffered  severe  depredations  in  recent  years. 
In  one  Virginia  county  alone,  it  is  estimated  that  the  loss 
from  pine  mice  would  amount  to  $300,000  annually.  The 
pine  mouse  works  almost  entirely  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  feeding  on  the  roots  of  the  apple  trees,  girdling 
the  trunk  at  or  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  in 
many  instances  tunneling  along  the  roots  and  eating  the 
bark  for  a  distance  of  several  feet  from  the  trunk  of  the 
tree.  While  the  field  mouse  usually  works  under  cover 
of  snow  and  is  particularly  bad  in  years  when  a  heavy 
coating  of  snow  remains  on  the  ground  for  a  considerable 
period  during  the  winter,  the  pine  mouse  works  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  ground  and  in  all  seasons  of  the  year. 
Its  activity  in  most  cases  is  not  apparent  until  the  tree 


Diseases  and  Pests  of  the  Apple  and  Their  Control      225 

attacked  begins  to  wilt  and  is  beyond  recovery.  For  bad 
infestation  by  pine  mice,  the  orchardist  must  introduce 
and  continue  careful  and  thorough  poisoning. 

Control  of  mice  by  poisoning. 

It  is  a  good  practice  for  the  orchardist  to  carry  a  can  of 
poison  about  with  him  and  as  he  discovers  holes  or  run- 
ways, to  deposit  a  few  of  the  grains  of  poisoned  wheat  in 
the  openings,  covering  the  latter  with  trash  or  leaves  in 
order  to  make  the  trap  more  effective.  Poisoning  must 
be  done  systematically.  Badly  infested  orchards  should 
be  first  disced  and  cultivated  in  the  spring.  In  poisoning 
it  is  well  to-  send  two  or  three  men  down  a  single  tree  row. 
By  following  a  zigzag  course  and  carefully  looking  for 
runways  or  holes,  effective  and  systematic  poisoning  may 
be  done.  One  man  should  easily  cover  from  one  to  two 
acres  in  this  manner  in  a  day.  A  careful  orchardist  in 
an  infested  area  should  go  over  his  orchard  several  times 
a  year. 

Trees  once  girdled  or  partially  so  will  soon  die  if 
exposed  to  the  sun  or  drying  action  of  the  wind.  For  this 
reason  the  practice  of  poisoning  should  be  accompanied 
by  a  search  for  injured  trees.  If  the  wounds  can  be 
covered  by  heaping  fresh  soil  about  the  trunk,  the  tree 
may  be  saved  and  later  a  permanent  recovery  may  be 
effected  by  bridge-grafting. 

A  good  poison  formula  for  control  of  these  mice  is  as 
follows : 

y2  ounce  strychnine 

1%  pints  water 

4  pounds  sugar 

1/2  peck  wheat 


226  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

Boil  strychnine,  sugar  and  water  together  for  ten  or 
fifteen  minutes,  then  add  the  wheat  and  boil  a  few  minutes 
longer.  Kemove  the  mixture  from  the  fire  and  stir  vigor- 
ously until  the  wheat  has  become  thoroughly  coated.  If, 
on  cooling,  the  mixture  does  not  sugar,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  boil  a  few  minutes  longer.  It  is  highly  important  that 
the  mixture  be  stirred  vigorously  in  order  that  the  poison 
may  be  distributed  and  the  grains  of  wheat  properly 
coated.  The  wheat  will  not  ferment  and  may  be  kept 
indefinitely.  It  is  claimed  that  chickens  are  not  affected. 

SPRAYING 

Spraying  as  known  to-day  has  come  into  general  prac- 
tice only  within  the  last  fifteen  or  twenty  years.  The 
development  of  the  power  sprayer  has  made  practicable 
the  spraying  of  large  commercial  tracts  and  at  the  present 
time  no  other  single  operation  defines  so  clearly  the  dis- 
tinction between  commercial  and  non-commercial  fruit- 
growing. It  is  now  generally  accepted  that  spraying  is 
necessary  to  the  production  of  strictly  commercial  apples. 

It  is  unquestionably  true  that  insect  pests  and  diseases 
are  becoming  more  numerous  and  growers  in  new  regions 
may  not  reasonably  expect  their  orchards  to  be  immune 
from  the  attacks  of  insects  and  diseases  which  thrive  else- 
where under  similar  conditions.  With  the  present  means 
of  communication  and  with  increased  number  of  host 
plants,  isolation  becomes  less  and  less  a  factor.  Fortun- 
ately, the  increased  energy  of  these  attacks  on  apple  trees 
has  been  accompanied  almost  simultaneously  with  the 
development  of  more  effective  spray  control  methods.  No 
other  orchard  operation  in  the  growing  of  commercial 
apples  requires  such  thorough  study  as  does  spraying,  and 


Diseases  and  Pests  of  the  Apple  and  Their  Control      227 

pays  more  on  the  investment,  and  yet  no  other  practice  is 
more  likely  to  be  slighted.  Growers  are  now  coming  to 
look  on  spraying  as  a  form  of  insurance  and  well  thought 
out  spray  programs  are  being  adopted  in  every  region. 

While  the  last  twenty  years  mark  the  period  within 
which  spraying  has  come  into  general  use  in  commercial 
apple-growing,  the  history  and  development  of  spraying 
plants  dates  back  much  further.  There  are  authentic 
records  of  trees  having  been  "  syringed  "  in  Europe  as 
early  as  1763.  The  history  of  spraying  indicates  that 
this  practice  was  probably  not  unknown  much  earlier  than 
this  date.  In  1872  paris  green  was  first  recommended  as 
an  efficient  spray  material  to  be  used  against  the  canker- 
worm  in  southern  Illinois.  Eight  years  later  probably 
the  first  experiment  in  the  control  of  the  codlin-moth  with 
the  use  of  an  arsenical  poison  was  conducted  in  Michigan 
by  Cook  who  reported  having  successfully  used  London 
purple  in  spraying  crab-apple  trees.  In  1892  and  1893 
arsenate  of  lead  was  introduced  largely  as  an  outgrowth 
of  the  gipsy  moth  control  work.  While  greater  emphasis 
was  laid  on  insecticides  in  the  early  history  of  spraying, 
the  development  of  suitable  spray  materials  for  fungous 
diseases  was  almost  simultaneous. 

It  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  describe  exact  methods  of 
spraying.  Thoroughness  is  all  important.  Leaking 
valves,  leaking  spray  hose  and  faulty  equipment  should  be 
avoided.  Spray  applications  should  be  made  promptly 
and  at  critical  times,  as  delays  are  costly.  For  this  reason 
the  equipment  should  be  thoroughly  gone  over  well  in 
advance  of  the  season. 

It  is  impossible  to  fix  a  definite  spray  program  which  can 
be  followed  absolutely.  Continued  rain  or  other  inclem- 


228  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

encieo  may  intervene.  The  seasonal  development  of  pests 
and  diseases  varies  greatly.  The  spray  problem  requires 
individual  study  with  careful  regard  for  general  principles 
in  control  methods. 

Cost  of  spraying. 

The  results  of  cost-production  studies  as  applied  to  spray- 
ing lack  stability  since  labor  rates  vary  greatly  in  different 
regions  and  change  from  year  to  year  even  within  a  given 
district.  The  cost  of  spray  material  suffers  similar 
changes.  However,  the  amount  of  labor  as  expressed  in 
man  and  horse  hours  does  not  fluctuate  greatly  and  affords 
a  reliable  basis  for  comparison.  The  writers  conducted 
detailed  cost  studies  in  hundreds  of  orchards  in  various 
regions  of  the  United  States  and  a  number  of  important 
points  regarding  the  amount  of  labor  involved  and  material 
used  were  brought  out.  In  the  cost  studies,  a  three-man 
and  two-horse  crew  operating  a  power  spray  outfit  was 
taken  as  a  basis.  Dusting  and  the  spray-gun  were  not 
used. 

It  was  found  that  such  a  crew  sprayed  on  the  average 
of  three  to  five  acres  of  bearing  trees  in  a  ten-hour  day. 
It  was  noticeable  that  the  northwestern  growers  sprayed 
out  more  material  in  a  day  than  those  in  other  districts, 
the  average  of  Yakima  and  Wenatchee  being  1,750  gallons 
a  day.  The  same  size  crew  operating  in  western  Xew 
York  averaged  only  1,100  gallons  a  day.  This  disparage- 
ment in  favor  of  the  efficiency  of  the  western  spray  crew 
may  be  explained  partly  by  the  fact  that  the  presence  of 
water  in  irrigating  ditches  greatly  facilitates  the  reload- 
ing of  spray  tanks  and  in  this  way  increases  the  efficiency 
of  the  spray  crew. 


Diseases  and  Pests  of  the  Apple  and  Their  Control      229 


TABLE  XI 

SHOWING  RATE  AND  COST  OF  APPLYING  SPRAY  MATERIALS  IN  Six 
OF  THE  LEADING  APPLE  REGIONS 


1 

1 

1 

3 

a 

8 

3 

1 

1 

1 

i 

1 

H 

1 

£ 

5 

H 

p 

£ 

Acres  a  day   .  .  . 

3.4 

4.24 

3.57 

5.47 

3.8 

4.6 

Gallons  a  day  .  . 

1766 

1743 

1253 

1205 

1904 

1150 

Gallons  an  acre. 

515 

411 

379 

223 

501 

250 

Gallons  a  tree  .  . 

6.3 

5.3 

6.3 

3.1 

6.8 

7.0 

Average  number 

sprays    

3.4 

4.98 

4.09 

5.65 

3.7 

3.5 

Cost  of  spraying 

$37.00 

$42.00 

$40.00 

$30.00 

$36.00 

$25.00 

Cost  of  labor    .  . 

20.00 

26.00 

23.00 

18.00 

22.00 

14.00 

Cost  of  materials 

17.00 

16.00 

17.00 

12.00 

14.00 

11.00 

The  accompanying  table  shows  the  amount  of  spray 
materials  used  and  the  rate  of  application  in  different 
regions.  These  and  other  data  are  taken  to  show  the 
approximate  cost  of  spraying  one  acre  of  bearing  orchards 
for  an  entire  season  in  each  of  six  important  apple  regions. 
In  studying  the  amount  used  for  a  tree  for  each  applica- 
tion, the  size  and  variety  of  the  tree  should  be  considered. 
For  example,  the  grower  in  Hood  Kiver,  Oregon,  applies 
on  an  average  of  only  3  gallons  to  a  tree  as  compared  with 
an  average  application  of  over  6  gallons  to  a  tree  elsewhere. 
The  Hood  River  Newtown  with  its  low  head  is  not  to  be 
compared  in  size  with  a  forty-year-old  New  York  Baldwin 
tree  and  therefore  does  not  require  the  amount  of  spray. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  if  the  New  York  grower  would  spray 
his  Baldwin  trees  as  thoroughly  as  the  Wenatchee  grower 
sprays  his  Winesap,  he  would  probably  use  at  least  twice 


230  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

as  much  material  instead  of  about  the  same  amount  of  7 
gallons  a  tree. 

The  dormant  lime-sulfur  application  is  included  in  the 
averages  of  Table  XI,  but  as  a  rule  requires  somewhat  more 
labor  and  of  course  involves  more  expensive  spray  material. 
Considering  the  best  sprayed  orchards,  it  becomes  appar- 
ent that  the  spraying  operations  represent  an  annual  out- 
lay of  at  least  $40  a  bearing  acre  if  depreciation  of  spray 
outfit  is  to  be  included. 

Spray  equipment. 

There  is  considerable  variation  in  the  type  of  spraying 
outfits.  For  the  small  grower,  hand  outfits  such  as  bucket 
or  barrel  sprayers  may  be  sufficient,  but  for  the  commercial 
grower  the  power  spray  is  essential.  At  present  the  power 
sprayers  operated  by  gasoline  engines  are  in  almost  exclu- 
sive use,  although  traction  and  compressed  air  outfits  have 
been  employed  with  some  success. 

Generally  speaking,  a  good  spray  outfit  is  a  most  profit- 
able investment.  For  the  operator  of  a  moderate  sized 
orchard,  the  common  outfit  is  a  three-  or  four-horse-power 
gasoline  sprayer  with  a  two-  or  three-cylinder  pump,  cap- 
able of  delivering  6  to  9  gallons  of  spray  material  a  minute 
under  a  pressure  of  200  to  250  pounds.  The  200-gallon 
tank  is  most  popular.  It  pays  to  buy  a  good  sprayer. 
Heavy  repair  bills  and  lack  of  efficiency  very  often  make 
the  cheap  sprayer  most  expensive  in  the  end. 

For  the  large  commercial  grower,  the  high  power  gas- 
oline outfit  with  four-cylinder  pumps  and  four-cylinder 
automobile  type  engines  from  10  to  12  horse-power  are 
not  uncommon.  These  large  outfits  are  capable  of  deliv- 
ering as  high  as  15  gallons  of  spray  material  a  minute 


Diseases  and  Pests  of  the  Apple  and  Their  Control      231 

under  pressure  of  200  to  300  pounds.  The  grower  can 
profitably  study  the  different  makes  of  power  sprayers 
before  making  a  selection.  Before  buying  he  should  insist 
on  seeing  a  thorough  orchard  demonstration  of  the  model 
in  question. 

No  other  one  new  device  since  the  power  sprayer  was 
invented  has  met  with  such  general  interest  as  the  spray- 
gun,  for  which  the  fruit  industry  is  indebted  to  John  Hull 
of  Gasport,  New  York.  The  idea  has  been  developed  by 
a  number  of  manufacturers.  The  gun  consists  of  a  short 
metal  rod  attached  to  the  end  of  a  spray  hose.  The  orig- 
inal spray-gun  was  constructed  so  as  to  deliver  a  maximum 
of  15  gallons  of  spray  a  minute.  Under  heavy  pressure, 
a  great  cloud  of  spray  could  be  sent  out,  reaching  a  height 
of  46  feet.  Experiments  have  not  actually  determined 
the  relative  value  of  the  spray-gun  as  compared  with  the 
old  rod  and  nozzle,  but  growers  Ijave  not  waited  for  pub- 
lished reports.  The  spray-gun  was  introduced  to  offset 
the  effect  of  dusting  and  is  now  being  used  by  hundreds  of 
growers.  Some  criticism  is  voiced  against  the  gun  for  the 
calyx  spray  in  controlling  codlin-worms.  When  used  from 
a  tower,  this  criticism  is  mitigated  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent.  Speed  is  the  chief  recommendation  for  the  spray- 
gun.  The  operator  usually  stands  on  a  tower  and  with  a 
single  gun  sprays  two  rows  from  a  steadily  moving  spray 
outfit. 

For  apple  orchards  in  full  bearing,  the  spray  tower  is  a 
necessary  accessory  if  thorough  work  is  to  be  performed. 
Planting  schemes  should  provide  sufficient  space  between 
mature  trees  to  permit  the  use  of  a  tower  in  reaching  the 
topmost  branches.  Various  tower  designs  are  in  use. 
Strong  iron  rods  supporting  a  small  square  platform  with 


232  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

railing  are  suitable  material.  Wooden  towers  are  more 
inexpensive.  When  trees  are  close  together,  a  tower  sup- 
porting a  single  wooden  bar  or  "  horse  "  which  the  tower- 
man  may  straddle  is  a  more  suitable  form. 

Nearly  every  grower  has  a  favorite  type  of  nozzle  and 
there  are  many  different  designs.  In  the  main  there  are 
two  broad  classifications,  the  Vermorel  or  eddy-chamber 
nozzle  and  the  Bordeaux  type.  With  the  former,  the  spray 
is  introduced  into  an  eddy  chamber  and  leaves  the  artifice 
in  a  cone  shape  mist.  With  the  Bordeaux  nozzle,  the 
spray  leaves  the  nozzle  with  a  direct  force,  but  is  deflected 
into  a  fan  shape  by  striking  an  obtrusive  bar  or  lip.  The 
Bordeaux  nozzle  provides  a  more  direct  driving  spray  and 
is  preferred  by  many  growers  for  the  calyx  spray  when  it 
is  desirable  to  drive  the  poison  down  into  the  calyx  cups. 
For  cover  sprays,  the  eddy-chamber  nozzle  is  more  popular. 
In  the  first  place  it  does  not  wear  out  so  quickly.  It  also 
uses  spray  material  more  economically  than  the  Bordeaux 
nozzle  and  does  not  catch  on  the  branches.  While  the 
Bordeaux  nozzle  will  deliver  2*/2  gallons  to  3  gallons  a 
minute  under  200-pound  pressure,  the  eddy-chamber  deliv- 
ers from  ~Ll/z  to  2  gallons.  The  Bordeaux  nozzle  causing 
a  driving,  fan  shaped  spray  is  heartily  indorsed  by  some 
for  the  calyx  application.  For  thorough  work  it  may  be 
more  effective,  although  for  an  all-round  nozzle  the 
"  Friend  "  type  or  disc  nozzle  is  desirable. 

Hired  sprayers. 

In  some  regions,  particularly  in  the  northwestern  irri- 
gated sections,  it  is  often  customary  to  hire  a  spraying 
outfit  by  the  day  or  hour.  Thus  one  grower  may  do  his 
own  spraying  and  that  of  several  neighbors.  The  small 


Diseases  and  Pests  of  the  Apple  and  Their  Control      233 

grower  resorts  to  this  practice  when  he  feels  that  his  acre- 
age is  insufficient  to  warrant  the  purchase  of  a  power  outfit. 

In  considering  custom  spraying,  two  decided  disad- 
vantages weigh  heavily  against  this  practice.  In  the  first 
place,  the  value  of  spraying  and  its  relative  cost  may  only 
be  measured  by  its  efficiency.  No  matter  how  cheap  the 
cost,  careless  spraying  is  expensive.  To  be  efficient,  a 
spray  must  be  applied  at  the  critical  period.  If  one  has 
to  wait  for  a  custom  sprayer,  very  often  the  value  of  the 
spraying  is  partly  lost.  The  second  reason  is  that  while 
figuring  only  labor  and  material  costs  the  hired  sprayer 
may  be  cheaper,  it  is  considerably  less  efficient.  On  sixty- 
nine  fruit-farms  studied  in  the  Yakima  Valley,  thirty- 
nine  growers  owned  their  own  sprayers  and  thirty  hired 
their  spraying  done.  In  every  instance  the  custom  sprayer 
applied  on  the  average  of  one-third  less  material  to  a  tree. 
It  is  quite  likely  that  in  every  instance  this  was  false 
economy.  The  hired  outfit  will  not  perform  the  careful 
work  which  a  grower  himself  will  do. 

It  is  not  to  be  concluded  from  this  discussion  that  the 
small  orchardist  is  invariably  justified  in  owning  a  power 
sprayer.  It  has  been  found  that  the  average  depreciation 
and  upkeep  of  a  power  spray  outfit  amounts  to  practically 
25  per  cent  a  year.  Thus  a  $500  sprayer  investment 
means  an  annual  outlay  of  $125  in  addition  to  labor  and 
material.  On  a  five-acre  orchard,  this  cost  alone  would  be 
$25  an  acre.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  orchardist  with 
less  than  ten  acres  is  justified  in  owning  a  power  sprayer. 

Regional  spraying  notes. 

The  northeastern  states. —  The  commercial  apple- 
growers  in  Michigan,  New  York  and  New  England  fear 


234  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

the  apple-scab  more  than  any  other  disease.  In  New 
York  the  infestation  of  the  apple  red  bug  is  serious  in  some 
localities  and  in  New  England  the  gipsy  and  the  brown- 
tail  moths  have  caused  considerable  losses.  The  apple- 
scab  is  quite  prevalent  throughout  New  England  as  is  also 
the  apple-maggot.  Scab  is  particularly  feared  by  the 
growers  of  Mclntosh  apples  in  this  region. 

The  middle  Atlantic  states. —  The  Piedmont  grower  of 
Virginia  suffers  heaviest  loss  in  seasons  favorable  to  the 
development  of  bitter-rot.  The  Yellow  Newtown  (Albe- 
marle  Pippin)  is  particularly  susceptible  to  this  disease 
which  may  occur  late  in  the  season  and  very  seriously 
injure  the  crop  when  nearly  mature.  Serious  epidemics 
of  apple-scab  are  uncommon,  although  this  disease  is  more 
or  less  prevalent  throughout  the  Piedmont  district.  In  the 
Shenandoah-Cumberland  region  of  Virginia,  West  Vir- 
ginia, Maryland  and  Pennsylvania,  the  pine  mouse  has 
been  a  most  destructive  orchard  pest  in  recent  years. 
Cedar-rust  has  also  been  very  destructive  and  has  pre- 
cipitated a  campaign  for  the  eradication  of  cedar  trees  in 
the  vicinity  of  orchard  plantings.  Root-rot  is  proving  to 
be  one  of  the  most  destructive  of  all  orchard  diseases  in 
these  four  states  and  as  yet  there  is  no  recognized  means 
of  control. 

The  Middle  West.—  Throughout  the  Middle  West  the 
apple-blotch  is  the  most  serious  disease  affecting  the  fruit 
and  the  blister-canker,  sometimes  known  as  the  Illinois 
blister-canker,  is  the  most  injurious  to  the  trees,  particu- 
larly those  of  the  Ben  Davis  variety.  Apple-scab  is  pre- 
valent in  favorable  years,  while  bitter-rot  is  often  serious 
in  the  Ozarks,  southern  Illinois  and  southern  Indiana. 

Western  boxed-apple  region. —  The  most  serious  pest  in 


PLATE  XIV. —  The  Woolly  Aphis.  Upper,  Ground  colonies  of 
the  woolly  aphis.  Lower,  Apple  roots  distorted  and  injured  by 
the  woolly  aphis. 


Diseases  and  Pests  of  the  Apple  and  Their  Control      235 

the  western  orchard  section  is  unquestionably  the  codlin- 
moth.  The  dry  arid  climate  in  nearly  all  the  irrigated 
sections  seems  particularly  favorable  to  its  development. 
The  long  hot  seasons  increase  the  number  of  broods  and 
seem  to  stimulate  the  activities  of  this  pest.  Furthermore, 
the  close  grading  of  the  fruit  emphasizes  the  loss  from 
worm  injury.  Eastern  growers  are  justified  in  feeling 
that  they  have  worked  out  a  satisfactory  spray  program 
against  codlin-moth  and  are  inclined  to  believe  that  the 
western  grower  is  deficient  in  his  spraying  methods  for  con- 
trolling this  insect.  Yet  in  many  instances  growers  on 
the  western  slope  of  Colorado  and  the  Yakima  Valley, 
Washington,  have  found  it  difficult  to  avoid  excessive  cod- 
lin-moth loss  even  after  spraying  much  more  thoroughly 
and  frequently  than  is  necessary  under  eastern  conditions. 
Fire-blight  epidemics  have  been  more  or  less  serious  in 
the  West  and  have  been  particularly  injurious  in  the 
Yakima  Valley,  Washington  and  the  Rogue  River  Valley, 
Oregon.  In  the  Rogue  River  and  Hood  River  valleys, 
Oregon,  the  apple-scab  has  been  serious  in  years  when  the 
climatic  conditions  were  favorable  to  its  development. 
However,  elsewhere  in  the  West  fungous  troubles  are  in 
the  main  inconspicuous. 

California. —  The  Watsonville  apple-grower  in  the 
Pajaro  Valley  must  devote  considerable  attention  to  the 
control  of  the  tussock  moth.  The  leaf-roller  is  also  rather 
prevalent  and  the  powdery-mildew  causes  more  or  less 
injury. 

DUSTING 

Dusting,  as  a  substitute  for  the  liquid  spray  method  in 
controlling  insects  and  disease,  has  been  brought  to  the 
recent  attention  of  fruit-growers  by  the  extensive  experi- 


236  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry, 

ments  conducted  in  western  New  York  in  1911-1913  by 
Blodgett  of  Cornell.  These  experiments  have  been  con- 
tinued elsewhere  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States 
by  various  state  and  federal  investigators.  The  practice 
of  dusting  has  been  adopted  with  greater  or  less  success  by 
many  commercial  growers  in  different  regions.  Its  status 
has  not  been  definitely  determined,  but  certain  conclusions 
may  be  drawn  from  results  thus  far  obtained. 

In  the  first  place,  dusting  has  certain  inherent  advant- 
ages over  the  use  of  liquid  spray:  (1)  More  trees  may  be 
covered  in  a  given  time  and  with  less  labor  than  with  the 
liquid  spray;  (2)  dusting  is  more  convenient  in  rough 
hilly  orchards;  (3)  considerable  time  is  saved  in  loading 
the  machine  with  material;  (4)  the  elimination  of  water 
reduces  very  materially  the  weight  of  the  spray  material 
to  be  hauled  through  the  orchard;  (5)  the  equipment  cost 
is  much  less  than  for  liquid  spraying  machine. 

In  comparing  the  cost  of  common  dust  materials,  such 
as  arsenate  of  lead  and  superfine  sulfur,  with  that  of 
similar  materials  used  in  liquid  sprays,  it  appears  that  the 
dusting  method  is  more  expensive,  particularly  if  much 
dust  is  lost  in  the  application  in  windy  or  unfavorable 
weather.  In  considering  labor  cost,  dusting  may  be 
cheaper  than  spraying  with  liquids,  and  it  is  on  this  point 
that  advocates  for  dusting  lay  particular  stress.  The 
spray-gun  more  recently  developed  has  reduced  this  ad- 
vantage of  the  dusting  method  over  the  liquid  spray.  But 
certainly  the  grower  may  cover  his  trees  at  the  critical 
period  in  less  time  and  with  less  labor  cost  by  dusting  than 
with  liquid  spray  applied  with  rods. 

A  two-man  crew  operating  a  dusting  machine  can  cover 
from  three  to  four  times  as  many  trees  as  a  three-man 


Diseases  and  Pests  of  the  Apple  and  Their  Control     237 

crew  operating  a  liquid  spray  outfit  with  the  old  rods.  It 
is  estimated  that  fifteen-year  old  trees  require  on  the 
average  of  about  1  to  1^  pounds  of  dust  for  a  single 
application,  while  trees  twenty  to  twenty-five  years  old 
require  approximately  2  pounds  of  dust.  The  time  and 
amount  of  material  vary  greatly  with  the  conditions  and 
methods  of  application.  These  data  will  convey  in  a  gen- 
eral way  the  relative  speed  of  the  two  systems. 
The  following  formulae  are  quite  generally  used : 

Formula  I.  Combination  dust  for  chewing  insects  and 
fungous  diseases: 

Arsenate  of  lead,  powder  ...  10  to  15  per  cent. 
Sulfur,  superfine  .  . . . 90  to  85  per  cent. 

Formula   2.  For   insect   infestations    and   light   fungous 
attacks : 

Arsenate  of  lead 10  per  cent. 

Sulfur 50  per  cent. 

Hydrated  lime  or  gypsum 40  per  cent 

Formula  3. 

Arsenate  of  lead,  powder  . .  10  to  15  per  cent. 
Hydrated  lime  or  gypsum  . .  90  to  85  per  cent. 

It  is  rather  difficult  to  dogmatize  on  the  efficiency  of 
dusting.  Some  growers,  after  a  more  or  less  thorough  trial, 
are  convinced  of  its  economy  and  efficiency.  Other  grow- 
ers have  discarded  their  dusting  machines.  In  western 
New  York  dusting  has  not  become  general.  Improved 
dusting  mixtures  and  better  methods  of  application  may 
result  in  greater  popularity  for  this  method,  for  it  has 
certain  time-saving  advantages.  However,  at  the  present 


238  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

time  it  has  not  been  altogether  sucecssful  in  controlling 
bad  scab  infection,  excessive  codlin-moth,  or  apple-blotch, 
the  three  most  serious  apple  diseases  and  pests.  It  seems 
possible  that  dusting  may  prove  better  adapted  to  regions 
where  the  codlin-moth  is  not  particularly  serious  or  scab 
infection  critical.  For  hilly  orchards  or  orchards  where 
water  supply  is  remote,  or  where  liquid  spraying  is  exceed- 
ingly difficult,  the  use  of  dusting  may  be  recommended  as 
a  substitute. 

The  power  duster  is  usually  operated  by  a  two-  or 
three-horse-power  gasoline  engine.  The  dust  mixture  is 
fed  into  a  rapidly  revolving  fan  by  means  of  a  hopper  and 
a  strong  current  of  air  forces  the  dust  out  through  a  dis- 
charge pipe.  A  single  operator  directs  the  cloud  of  dust 
by  shifting  the  discharge  pipe. 

INSECTICIDES 

In  studying  insect  control,  the  first  consideration  should 
be  given  to  the  methods  by  which  insects  secure  their  food. 
Generally  speaking,  there  are  two  classes  of  insects:  (1) 
biting  and  chewing  insects  such  as  codlin-moth  and  tent- 
caterpillar;  (2)  sucking  insects  such  as  aphids  and  scale. 
When  insects  feed  on  such  exposed  parts  as  the  buds  or 
leaves,  arsenicals  or  other  stomach  poisons  are  necessary. 
In  the  case  of  chewing  insects  which  feed  beneath  the 
bark,  such  as  borers,  other  control  methods  must  be  em- 
ployed. Sucking  insects  are  best  checked  by  the  use  of 
contact  sprays  such  as  lime-sulfur,  nicotine,  and  kerosene 
emulsion. 

Following  is  a  general  classification  of  common  insect- 
icides : 


Diseases  and  Pests  of  the  Apple  and  Their  Control      239 

(1)  Insecticides  for  biting  insects  —  arsenate  of  lead, 
paris  green,  calcium  arsenate  and  arsenite  of  zinc. 

(2)  Insecticides     for     sucking     insects  —  lime-sulfur, 
nicotine  solution,  miscible  oils,   so-called  dry-lime-sulfur 
compounds. 

For  biting  insects. 

Arsenate  of  lead  is  the  most  widely  used  poison  for  chew- 
ing and  biting  insects.  It  is  particularly  effective  against 
the  codlin-moth.  Both  powdered  and  paste  forms  are  in 
common  use,  the  powder  having  come  into  recent  popular- 
ity on  account  of  convenience  in  handling.  Of  the  two 
kinds  of  lead  arsenate,  one  is  known  as  ortho,  triplumbic 
or  neutral  lead  arsenate  and  the  other  as  standard  or 
diplumbic  lead  arsenate.  The  diplumbic  or  acid  lead  is 
now  being  employed  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  the  ortho 
or  triplumbic  form,  although  the  latter  is  sometimes  recom- 
mended for  more  tender  foliage  or  in  regions  where  foliage 
is  likely  to  be  burned  by  arsenicals.  Best  brands  of  paste 
lead  contain  from  15  to  17  per  cent  of  arsenic  oxide,  while 
powdered  forms  usually  contain  approximately  double  that 
amount,  the  50  per  cent  water-conterft  having  been 
removed.  Two  pounds  paste  or  1  pound  arsenate  of  lead  to 
50  gallons  of  water  are  standard  strengths.  Before  the 
lead  is  added  to  the  spray-tank,  it  should  be  made  into  a 
thin  paste  by  the  addition  of  water  or  preferably  reduced 
to  a  solution  in  3  or  4  gallons  of  water.  Particular  atten- 
tion should  be  given  to  mixing  the  powdered  forms  so  that 
the  suspension  will  be  complete.  Strengths  of  less  than  2 
pounds  of  paste  lead  arsenate  to  50  gallons  of  water  have 
not  as  a  rule  given  satisfaction.  At  present  a  number  of 
experiments  are  being  conducted  in  the  Northwest  in 


240  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

which  arsenate  of  lead  is  being  used  3  and  even  4  pounds 
paste  to  50  gallons  of  water.  Where  the  codlin-moth  is 
becoming  a  more  serious  menace,  it  is  thought  that  by 
increasing  the  dosage,  quicker  killing  effects  may  be 
secured  and  the  loss  from  later  stings  may  be  reduced. 

Parts  green  is  an  arsenical  poison  which  has  been  largely 
superseded  by  arsenate  of  lead,  the  latter  having  proved 
more  adhesive,  more  compatible  with  other  spray  materials 
and  less  likely  to  cause  burning.  Paris  green  is  not  widely 
used  in  any  commercial  apple  region. 

Calcium  arsenate  is  being  tried  out  in  many  parts  of 
the  United  States  and,  although  more  or  less  in  an  experi- 
mental state  of  development,  has  given  some  promise,  par- 
ticularly when  used  on  apples  under  eastern  conditions 
where  codlin-moth  infestation  is  not  serious.  The  pow- 
dered forms  contain  42  to  45  per  cent  of  arsenic-oxide  and 
the  paste  forms  17  to  20  per  cent.  When  employed  alone 
in  the  Northwest,  some  burning  resulted.  The  addition  of 
paste  lime  at  the  rate  of  2  or  3  pounds  of  stone  lime  to  50 
gallons  of  water  is  considered  a  wise  precaution  against 
burning.  Combination  of  lime-sulfur,  summer  strength, 
with  calcium  arsenate  has  thus  far  proved  satisfactory. 
Calcium  arsenate  has  not  been  widely  employed  in  any 
commercial  apple  region,  although  it  is  being  tested  by 
many  growers  at  present.  Commercial  forms  lack  the 
smoothness  and  fineness  which  characterizes  the  well- 
known  brands  of  arsenate.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the 
physical  properties  of  commercial  calcium  arsenate  can  be 
greatly  improved.  Experiments  have  thus  far  given  some 
promise.  Complete  results  of  thorough  trial  and  demon- 
stration will  be  awaited  with  interest.  Although  it  has 
not  yet  demonstrated  the  quick-killing  properties  of  lead, 


Diseases  Mid  Pests  of  the  Apple  and  Their  Control      241 

calcium  arsenate  is  cheaper  pound  for  pound  than  lead  and 
this  may  cause  its  ultimate  introduction  in  the  East  where 
codlin-moth  infestation  is  not  the  menace  which  it  is  in 
most  irrigated  regions.  Calcium  arsenate  is  still  in  the 
experimental  stage. 

Arsenite  of  zinc  is  a  quick-acting  poison  which  in  pow- 
dered form  contains  about  40  per  cent  arsenic-oxide.  It 
is  used  in  tussock  moth  control  in  the  Pajaro  Valley  or 
Watsonville  district,  California,  but  on  account  of  its  tend- 
ency to  burn  it  has  not  been  employed  elsewhere. 

For  sucking  insects,  contact  sprays. 

Liquid  lime-sulfur  has  become  the  standard  dormant  or 
winter  spray  for  apples.  It  is  a  combination  insecticide 
and  fungicide  chiefly  valuable  for  its  effectiveness  against 
San  Jose  scale  and  certain  other  insects  as  well  as  against 
fungous  diseases.  It  is  to  be  preferred  to  any  of  the 
present  forms  of  so-called  dry  lime-sulfur.  For  full  win- 
ter strength,  1  to  8  is  generally  accepted  as  the  proper  rate 
of  dilution.  This  rate  applies  to  the  concentrated  com- 
mercial lime-sulfur  testing  33°  Baume.  Weaker  solu- 
tionst  should  be  diluted  accordingly.  The  table  of  dilu- 
tion on  the  next  page  will  serve  as  guide. 

For  summer  sprays,  particularly  for  apple-scab,  a  weak 
solution  of  lime-sulfur  is  widely  employed  alone  or  in  com- 
bination with  nicotine  and  arsenate  of  lead.  The  strength 
at  which  summer  applications  of  lime-sulfur  cause  burning 
varies  with  the  season  and  the  climatic  conditions.  Lime- 
sulfur  has  been  used  1  to  10  in  summer  without  injurious 
effects  to  the  fruit  or  foliage.  Again  a  dilution  of  1  to  30 
may  cause  foliage  burning.  It  is  generally  accepted  that 
1  to  35  for  the  pink  spray  and  later  summer  application 


242 


The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 


TABLE  XII 
DILUTION  TABLE  FOR  CONCENTRATED  LIME-SULFUR  SOLUTIONS 


Number  gallons  concentrated  lime-sulfur 

to  make  50  gallons  spray  solution. 

Degrees 
Baume. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Summer  or 

Winter  or  dormant  strength. 

foliage 
strength. 

San  Jose 
scale. 

Blister 
mite. 

36 

1.330 

H4 

5% 

4% 

35 

1.318 

H4 

5% 

5 

34 

1.306 

iy2 

6 

5 

33 

1.295 

1% 

6% 

5% 

32 

1.283 

1% 

ey2 

5% 

31 

1.272 

i% 

6% 

5% 

30 

1.261 

1% 

7 

6 

29 

1.250 

1% 

7V4 

6y* 

28 

1.239 

1% 

7% 

ey2 

27 

1.229 

2 

8 

6% 

26 

1.218 

2 

sy2 

7y4 

25 

1.208 

2 

8% 

7% 

24 

1.198 

2% 

9% 

8 

23 

1.188 

8% 

9% 

sy* 

22 

1.179 

2^4 

10% 

8% 

21 

1.169 

8% 

11 

9% 

20 

1.160 

2y2 

ny2 

9% 

is  a  safe  and  effective  dilution.  Excessively  hot  days 
should  be  avoided  in  summer  spraying  with  lime-sulfur. 
In  the  Middle  West,  Bordeaux  mixture  is  very  often  pre- 
ferred to  lime-sulfur  for  the  late  summer  sprays  on  account 
of  its  great  effectiveness  against  blotch  and  bitter-rot. 
Some  feel  also  that  Bordeaux  is  less  likely  to  cause  burning. 
Home-made  lime-sulfur  solution. —  It  has  been  demon- 
strated that  the  preparation  at  home  of  a  lime-sulfur  solu- 
tion is  practicable  and  very  often  economical.  When  a 
grower  has  less  than  four  or  five  acres  of  orchard,  it  is  prob- 
ably advisable  for  him  to  buy  the  commercial  lime-sulfur, 
since  it  is  usually  superior  to  the  home-made ;  furthermore, 


Diseases  and  Pests  of  the  Apple  and  Their  Control      243 

considerable  difficulties  attend  the  manufacture  of  lime- 
sulfur  in  small  quantities.  If  the  grower  is  operating  a 
large  orchard,  or  if  several  smaller  growers  can  cooperate 
as  is  done  in  many  instances,  it  is  very  often  advisable  for 
them  to  manufacture  their  own  solution.  The  materials 
for  making  are :  lime,  use  only  fresh  lump  lime,  free  from 
foreign  substances  and  containing  at  least  90  per  cent  cal- 
cium oxide  and  not  over  5  per  cent  magnesium  oxide; 
sulfur,  either  flowers  of  sulfur  or  commercial  sulfur  finely 
ground.  Various  appliances  may  be  used  for  cooking  lime- 
sulfur  concentrates.  A  large  iron  kettle  raised  from  the 
ground  on  loose  stones,  or  kettles  imbedded  in  masonry  are 
suggested.  When  considerable  amount  of  spray  material 
is  needed,  a  more  elaborate  plant  will  be  practicable. 
Cooking  with  steam  is  the  most  satisfactory  method  and 
with  a  larger  plant  the  installation  of  a  boiler  is  advisable. 
A  twelve-horse  boiler  will  furnish  sufficient  steam  for  a 
cooker  of  300  gallons  capacity.  Iron  cooking  vessels  are 
usually  preferable  to  wooden  on  account  of  danger  of  leak 
in  the  latter.  The  hydrometer  is  necessary  for  testing  the 
density  of  the  final  solution.  Table  XII  should  be  fol- 
lowed in  making  dilutions. 

Preparation  of  home-made  lime-sulfur  solution. — 

Formula 

Fresh  stone  lime 50  pounds 

Commercial  ground  sulfur 100  pounds 

Water    50  gallons 

Place  the  desired  quantity  of  lime  in  the  cooker  or 
slaking-box,  then  add  water  (preferably  hot,  since  hot 
water  slakes  the  lime  more  quickly).  Care  should  be 


244  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

taken  to  use  enough  water  to  prevent  too  violent  slaking 
or  burning,  although  too  much  water  is  objectionable, 
since  this  will  drown  the  lime.  Mix  the  sulfur  to  a  thin 
paste  and  add  the  lime,  then  the  desired  quantity  of  water. 
After  the  full  amount  of  water  has  been  added,  the  cook- 
ing-vat should  be  marked  or  a  notched  stick  used  to  show 
the  original  amount  of  water.  Keep  adding  hot  water 
from  time  to  time  to  replace  that  which  has  evaporated. 
The  solution  should  not  be  allowed  to  boil  down  stronger 
than  one-half  gallon  to  each  pound  of  sulfur,  nor  should 
there  ever  be  much  of  an  excess  of  water.  The  solution 
should  be  boiled  for  at  least  forty-five  minutes  but  not 
longer  than  one  hour.  It  is  important  that  boiling  should 
proceed  vigorously  and  that  the  mixture  should  be  stirred 
constantly.  After  the  lime-sulfur  solution  has  been  made, 
it  should  be  strained  in  order  that  the  undissolved  particles 
may  be  removed.  Straining  should  be  through  an  iron 
wire  (never  copper)  30  to  50  mesh  to  the  inch.  The  solu- 
tion should  be  allowed  to  cool  before  being  tested  with  a 
hydrometer.  If  the  solution  is  left  exposed,  a  film  of 
oil  should  be  poured  over  the  surface  to  exclude  the  air. 
It  is  highly  important  that  all  home-made  lime-sulfur  be 
tested  with  the  hydrometer,  otherwise  the  grower  is  merely 
guessing  as  to  the  strength  of  the  spray.  The  sediment 
obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  home-made  lime-sulfur  will 
be  useful  in  painting  the  trunks  of  the  trees. 

Nicotine  solution  is  recognized  as  a  standard  contact 
insecticide  for  summer  spraying.  It  is  particularly  effect- 
ive against  aphids  and  may  be  used  without  injury  to  the 
foliage.  A  solution  of  nicotine  sulfate  containing  40  per 
cent  nicotine  such  as  Black  Leaf  40  is  the  common  com- 
mercial form.  Proper  dilution  is  given  at  1  to  800  and 


Diseases  and  Pests  of  the  Apple  and  Their  Control      245 

1  to  1,000.  Soap  should  be  added  at  the  rate  of  2  or  3 
pounds  to  50  gallons  to  increase  the  spreading  and  adhesive 
qualities  of  the  spray.  Nicotine  may  be  used  in  combina- 
tion with  lead  arsenate,  lime-sulfur  or  both. 

Miscible  oils. — "  Miscible "  or  "  soluble "  oils  have 
come  into  considerable  use  as  dormant  sprays,  particularly 
in  the  West  where  they  have  been  found  a  satisfactory 
treatment  for  badly  encrusted  San  Jose  scale.  The  misci- 
ble  oils  have  a  tendency  to  spread  after  they  have  been 
applied  and  for  that  reason  are  particularly  effective 
against  scale  insects.  Home-made  emulsions  are  used  to 
some  extent  in  California  where  the  crude  oils  can  be  pur- 
chased cheaply.  The  question  of  injury  resulting  from 
continued  oil  spraying  is  disputed.  It  is  advisable  to  make 
dormant  oil  spray  in  the  late  winter  rather  than  in  the  fall. 
If  oil  sprays  can  be  applied  in  the  spring  just  previous  to 
the  swelling  of  the  buds,  preferably  on  sunny  days,  the 
danger  of  injuring  the  trees  will  be  minimized.  When 
hard  water  is  being  used  for  spraying,  it  is  desirable  to  add 
1  to  2  pounds  of  soda  to  each  spray  tank. 

So-called  dry  lime-sulfur. —  The  active  and  killing 
ingredients  of  lime-sulfur  determine  the  value  of  these 
sprays.  The  following  table  gives  the  relative  cost  of  this 
liquid  versus  dry  lime-sulfur  compounds  measured  in 
terms  of  active  sulfur.  The  comparison  in  this  table  is  in 
favor  of  the  liquid  lime-sulfur.  In  lime-sulfur  (dry),  the 
active  sulfur  costs  $18.90  for  100  pounds ;  in  soda-sulfur 
$14.03  for  100  pounds,  and  liquid  lime-sulfur  only  $8.03 
for  100  pounds.  The  inference  is  clear  that  lime-sulfur 
solution  is  a  much  more  economical  form  than  the  so- 
called  dry  lime-sulfur  or  soda-sulfur. 


246 


The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 


TABLE  XIII 

DRY  SULFUR  PREPARATION  vs.  LIME-SULFUR  SOLUTION 

Insecticide  and  Fungicide  Laboratory,  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  University  of  California.     (Berkeley),  Nov.  1918. 


Material. 

Total 
active 
sulfur. 
(Approx.) 

Cost  of 
100  Ibs. 
active 
sulfur. 

Amount  equiva- 
lent to   1   gallon 
lime-sulfur 
solution. 

1  gallon  weighs 

Lime-sulfur  solution    (33  B.) 

26% 

$8.03 

10.78  Ibs. 

Average  retail  price 

$11.26 

per  barrel. 

• 

Soda-sulfur    

57% 

$14.03 

4.9     « 

Average  retail  price 

$8.00 

per   cwt. 

Lime-sulfur   (dry)    .... 

55% 

$18.90 

5.0     " 

Average  retail  price 

$10.40 

per   cwt. 

Spreaders  for  the  different  insecticides. 

The  use  of  spreaders  in  securing  a  more  uniform  coating 
of  spray  is  attracting  considerable  interest  among  experi- 
menters and  fruit-growers.  Three  so-called  spreaders  are 
more  or  less  well  known : 

(1)  Glue  —  1  to  2  ounces  to  50  gallons. 

(2)  Flour  paste  —  2  pounds  flour  reduced  to  paste,  to 

50  gallons  of  water. 

(3)  Soap — 2   pounds   liquid   soap  to   50   gallons   of 

water.  Other  soaps  such  as  fish-oil,  rosin  or 
common  laundry  soap  may  be  used  at  the  same 
rate. 

The  use  of  soap  with  nicotine  solutions  is  generally 
accepted  as  highly  beneficial.  Soap  should  not  be  used 
with  lime-sulfur,  however,  but  is  compatible  with  arsenate 


PLATE  XV. —  Upper,  The  tent  caterpillar,  nest  and  young  cater- 
pillars on  wild  cherry;  frequently  found  in  the  apple.  Lower, 
Rosy  apple  aphis  and  its  effect  on  the  foliage  and  fruit  of  the 
apple. 


Diseases  and  Pests  of  the  Apple  and  Their  Control      247 

of  lead  and  is  highly  recommended  in  combination  with 
Bordeaux.  The  other  spreaders  named,  glue  and  flour 
paste,  are  being  used  with  arsenicals,  but  their  status  has 
not  yet  been  definitely  determined.  It  is  thought  that 
they  may  increase  the  spreading  tendencies  and  effect  a 
more  uniform  coating  of  these  arsenic  stomach  poisons. 

FUNGICIDES 

Lime-sulfur  has  been  treated  on  the  preceding  pages,  as 
it  is  both  an  insecticide  and  fungicide. 

Bordeaux  mixture. —  The  standard  formula  for  Bor- 
deaux mixture  is  as  follows: 

Copper  sulf ate   (bluestone)    4  pounds 

Fresh  stone  lime 4  pounds 

-  Water    50  gallons 

Dissolve  the  bluestone  and  slake  the  lime  separately  with 
water.  Bluestone  may  be  conveniently  dissolved  by  plac- 
ing it  in  a  burlap  sack  and  suspending  the  sack  in  the  upper 
part  of  a  barrel  or  other  receptacle  filled  with  water. 
Stock  solutions  of  this  material  may  be  made  by  dissolving 
1  pound  bluestone  in  1  gallon  of  water  and  diluting  to  the 
required  strength  when  ready  for  use.  It  is  not  advisable 
to  make  up  in  advance  large  amounts  of  this  solution  that 
cannot  be  used  within  a  period  of  a  few  days.  Nothing 
but  wooden  or  earthen  containers  should  be  employed 
since  copper  sulf  ate  (bluestone)  reacts  when  brought  in 
contact  with  metal  ware  of  any  kind.  In  slaking  the  lime, 
cover  with  just  enough  water  to  start  slaking,  then  add 
water  to  prevent  too  rapid  action  and  heating.  Work  the 
lime  into  a  paste  and  dilute  at  the  rate  of  1  pound  of  lime 


248  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

to  1  gallon  of  water  for  stock  solution.  When  ready  for 
use,  4  gallons  of  stock  solution  will  represent  4  pounds  of 
stone  lime,  sufficient  for  50  gallons  of  Bordeaux  mixture 
spray.  When  the  mixture  of  lime  and  bluestone  is  to  be 
made,  it  is  a  wise  precaution  to  pour  the  two  solutions 
simultaneously  into  the  third  receptacle  in  order  that  they 
will  mix  freely  while  going  into  the  spray-tank  or  third 
receptacle.  A  strainer  should  be  used  when  filling  the 
spray-tank.  Bordeaux  mixture  is  the  standard  fungicide 
for  bitter-rot  and  for  blotch  in  the  Middle  West,  and  is 
used  double  strength  in  the  fall  for  anthracnose. 

Finely  divided  sulfur. —  There  are  a  number  of  finely 
divided  sulfur  compounds  on  the  market  known  as  atomic 
sulfur,  "  milled "  sulfur  and  by  similar  trade  names. 
Greater  adhesion  and  greater  spreading  qualities  are 
claimed  for  these  compounds.  They  are  used  against  the 
powdery-mildew  in  some  of  the  orchard  regions  of  the 
Pacific  Coast 


CHAPTER  XI 
FRUIT  SETTING  AND  POLLINATION 

ONE  of  the  most  important  phases  of  the  orchard  prob- 
lem is  pollination.  Without  this,  fruit  does  not  set  and 
crops  are  impossible.  Broadly  speaking,  there  are  two 
phases  of  the  problem:  (1)  The  primary  effect  of  pollin- 
ation, that  is  the  fertilization  of  the  pistils  of  the  flower  so 
that  the  bloom  is  capable,  of  setting  fruit;  and  (2)  the 
secondary  effect  of  cross-pollination  about  which  much  has 
been  written,  but  about  which  there  is  still  little  definite 
information.  In  a  study  of  the  secondary  effect  of  pollin- 
ation such  questions  arise  as  what  effect  Baldwin  pollen 
will  have  on  the  Mclntosh  apple  or  how  the  cross-pollina- 
tion among  certain  varieties  will  affect  the  form,  size, 
flavor  or  color  of  the  fruit. 

Many  varieties  are  known  to  be  self-sterile.  This  term 
is  applied  to  varieties  which  are  unable  to  set  fruit  without 
the  aid  of  pollen  from  another  variety.  Here  attention  is 
called  to  the  fact  that  pollen  from  a  different  tree  of  the 
same  variety  does  not  constitute  cross-pollination.  An 
indication  of  self -sterility  is  the  continued  dropping  of 
young  fruit  from  isolated  trees  or  from  trees  in  solid 
blocks  of  the  same  variety.  Self -sterility  is  not  a  constant 
character  with  any  variety.  The  same  variety  may  be 
self-sterile  in  one  region  and  nearly  self-fertile  in  another. 
Emphasis  is  placed  on  the  fact  that  local  conditions  greatly 

249 


250  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

influence  self-sterility  or  self-fertility.  Poorly  nourished 
trees  are  more  likely  to  be  self-sterile  than  well  nourished 
ones. 

Imperfect  pollination  is  more  often  due  to  other  causes 
than  the  absence  of  suitable  varieties  for  cross-pollination. 
Furthermore,  it  is  not  always  necessary  to  have  a  heavy  set 
of  bloom  to  secure  a  heavy  yield  of  fruit.  It  is  well  known 
that  under  normal  conditions  if  4  to  7  per  cent  of  the  blos- 
soms set  fruit  in  a  good  bloom  year,  a  large  crop  of  fruit  is 
insured.  If  10  per  cent  of  the  blossoms  set  fruit  when  the 
bloom  is  heavy,  it  is  an  indication  of  a  very  large  crop. 
These  facts  do  not  minimize  the  importance  of  pollination, 
however,  and  it  is  highly  important  that  every  care  should 
be  taken  to  insure  proper  fertilization  of  the  flowers. 
While  the  benefits  of  cross-fertilization  are  recognized  as 
important  in  all  plant-breeding  work,  the  experimental 
data  on  the  secondary  effect  of  pollination  are  so  contra- 
dictory as  not  to  offer  a  field  for  definite  discussion.  The 
results  of  experiments  to  determine  the  effect  of  cross- 
pollination  on  color,  form  and  flavor  of  the  fruit  have  been 
largely  negative.  For  that  reason,  this  discussion  will  be 
largely  confined  to  the  primary  effect  of  pollination. 

CAUSES  FOE  THE  FATLUBE  TO  SET  FBTJIT 

Failure  of  blossoms  to  set  fruit  properly  is  not  by  any 
means  due  in  all  cases  to  imperfect  pollination.  Many 
factors  other  than  this  affect  the  set  of  fruit  and  are  more 
often  the  cause  of  light  crops.  Among  the  factors  causing 
a  light  set  of  fruit  are : 

1.  Fruit-spurs  and  trees  may  be  weak  on  account  of  a 
lack  of  proper  nourishment.  When  trees  are  starved  for 
proper  plant-food  or  when  it  is  not  made  available  by  good 


Fruit  Setting  and  Pollination  251 

soil  management,  the  fruit-spurs  become  weak  and  fail  to 
set  fruit-buds  which  have  sufficient  vitality  to  develop  into 
fruit.  This  often  accounts  for  the  crop  failure  of  old  trees 
making  little  annual  growth.  In  such  cases,  lack  of  proper 
nourishment  is  more  often  the  cause  of  unf ruitfulness  than 
lack  of  cross-pollination. 

2.  Insects  and  diseases  prevalent  at  blooming  time  may 
cause  a  poor  set  of  fruit.     Some  of  the  bloom  is  often 
destroyed  outright  by  various  diseases,  particularly  apple- 
scab,    anthracnose,    or   blight.     Many   blossoms   may   be 
ruined  in  their  early  development  by  the  attacks  of  insects. 

3.  Extreme  vegetative  vigor  of  the  tree  on  account  of  an 
excess  of  certain  elements  of  plant-food  may  detract  from 
f ruitfulness.     Often  when  a  tree  is  growing  too  vigorously, 
it  runs  largely  to  wood  growth  and  sets  very  few  blossoms 
and  even  these  are  shed  as  soon  as  the  blooming  period  is 
past.     Excessive    amounts    of   nitrate   or   manure   when 
applied  to  orchards   already  making  good  growth  often 
over-stimulate  wood  growth  to  the  point  at  which  the  trees 
are  almost  barren.     Furthermore,  in  such  cases  the  fruit- 
buds  go  into  the  winter  in  an  immature  condition  with  less 
chance   of   escaping   winter-injury.     Most   experimenters 
agree  that  wood  growth  can  not  keep  up  vigorously  during 
the  entire  season  without  sacrificing  a  healthy  set  of  fruit- 
buds. 

4.  Drought  injury  to  trees  may  prevent  the  development 
of  fruit-buds.     It  has  been  noted  that  when  excessively 
long  droughts  occur,  trees  produce  very  little  bloom  the  fol- 
lowing season.     The  weakening  influence  of  the  drought 
prevents  the  formation  of  fruit-buds  with  sufficient  vitality 
to  form  fruit.     In  such  cases  the  tree  requires  all  its 
energy  to  repair  vegetative  growth,  and  even  though  it  may 


252  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

bloom  profusely  the  blossoms  are  so  weak  that  they  fail  to 
set  fruit. 

5.  Winter-injury  to  fruit-buds  may  occur.     The  apple 
ordinarily  does  not  suffer  greatly  from  winter-killing  of 
fruit-buds.     In  the  case  of  most  varieties,  the  fruit-buds 
are  no  more  sensitive  to  winter-killing  than  the  tree  itself. 
However,  the  vitality  of  the  buds  may  unquestionably  be 
affected  by  the  character  of  the  winter,  particularly  if  the 
relative  humidity  is  low.     Dry  atmosphere  and  soil  are 
more  often  the  cause  of  injury  to  fruit-buds  than  extreme 
cold. 

6.  The  buds  or  bloom  may  be  injured  by  late  spring 
frosts.     Often  buds  are  injured  by  frost  before  bloom  and 
if  not  killed  outright  are  so  weakened  as  to  be  unable  to 
set  fruit.     Fortunately,  when  freezes  occur  before  bloom, 
there  are  usually  some  buds  which  are  not  so  far  advanced 
as  others  and  which  for  this  reason  escape  injury.     Severe 
killing  frosts  are  those  which  occur  when  the  trees  are  in 
full  bloom  or  just  as  the  bloom  is  being  shed.     Frost  at 
this  time  may  so  impair  the  fruiting  organs  as  to  cause 
dropping  of  the  fruit  after  it  has  once  set. 

7.  Some  varieties  have  an  inherent  inability  to  set  fruit, 
although  grown  under  favorable  conditions  and  blooming 
profusely.     These   varieties    are    more    frequently    home 
orchard  sorts  and  seldom  trouble  the  commercial  orchardist. 

8.  The  last  and  one  of  the  most  important  factors  which 
affect  the  proper  set  of  fruit  is  pollination.     Proper  pol- 
lination is  usually  dependent  on  one  or  some  combination 
of  six  different  factors:  (a)   In  the  case  of  self-sterile  or 
partially  self-sterile  varieties,  proper  pollination  can  not 
take  place  unless  other  suitable  varieties  are  present  for 
pollinizers.     (b)  An  absence  of  insects  or  other  agents 


Fruit  Setting  and  Pollination  253 

may  prevent  pollination.  Bees  are  almost  essential. 
Other  insects  may  be  useful,  but  none  is  as  active  in  carry- 
ing pollen  from  flower  to  flower.  The  importance  of  delay- 
ing the  calyx  application  of  lead  arsenate  until  most  of  the 
petals  have  fallen  is  now  emphasized  by  most  horticultur- 
ists as  a  precaution  against  poisoning  bees.  Much  has 
been  said  about  the  importance  of  wind  as  a  pollinizing 
agent,  useful  in  carrying  the  pollen  from  blossom  to  blos- 
som and  from  tree  to  tree  and  much  effort  has  been 
expended  in  determining  its  effectiveness.  Most  author- 
ities agree  that  fully  99  per  cent  of  all  fertilized  blossoms 
owe  pollination  to  bees  or  other  insects  and  less  than  1  per 
cent  to  the  wind.  As  a  direct  agency,  therefore,  wind  has 
very  little  effect  as  far  as  carrying  pollen  is  concerned.  It 
may,  however,  prevent  bees  from  working  on  the  windy 
side  of  the  tree  and  thereby  cause  a  lighter  set  of  fruit  on 
the  exposed  than  on  the  sheltered  side,  (c)  Rain  or  cold 
weather  is  a  factor  affecting  pollination.  Cold,  wet  or 
damp  weather  during  the  blooming  period  often  checks 
the  activity  of  bees  and  sometimes  prevents  the  germina- 
tion and  causes  decomposition,  or  devitalization,  of  the 
pollen-grains.  Unfavorable  weather  at  blooming  is  a  very 
important  factor  in  reducing  the  set  of  fruit,  particularly 
through  the  central  western  states,  and  often  in  the  East, 
(d)  Very  hot  and  dry  weather  may  also  prevent  proper 
pollination,  particularly  if  accompanied  by  wind.  Excess- 
ive heat  may  injure  the  stamens  so  seriously  that  they  can 
not  properly  mature  their  pollen  or  it  may  cause  dehiscence 
of  the  anthers  before  the  pollen  matures,  (e)  Excessively 
windy  weather.  Strong  winds,  particularly  if  accom- 
panied by  rain  are  very  injurious  to  the  blossoms.  The 
rain  is  likely  to  wash  away  the  pollen-grains  and  strong 


254  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

winds  prevent  the  activity  of  bees.  In  very  hot  weather 
high  winds  may  so  entirely  dry  up  the  fluid  secreted  by  the 
stigma  as  to  make  germination  of  the  pollen-grains  impos- 
sible, (f )  Spraying  in  full  bloom.  Injury  is  caused  and 
pollination  is  sometimes  prevented  if  trees  are  sprayed  in 
full  bloom  before  pollination  has  taken  place. 

The  above  discussion  outlines  some  of  the  influences 
affecting  the  set  of  fruit.  It  now  becomes  important  to 
consider  mixed  varieties  with  relation  to  cross-pollination. 
It  is  generally  recognized  that  too  much  emphasis  was 
formerly  placed  on  the  advisability  of  mixing  varieties  in 
order  to  aid  in  pollination.  As  a  result,  many  orchards 
were  set  with  mixed  varieties  when  two  or  three  well 
selected  kinds  would  have  provided  for  cross-pollination 
and  would  have  been  a  much  more  desirable  arrangement 
from  a  commercial  standpoint.  The  orchardist  too  often 
proceeded  on  the  theory  that  if  a  few  different  varieties 
were  advisable  as  pollinizers,  many  were  the  more  desir- 
able. As  a  matter  of  fact,  one  variety  which  is  a  good 
pollinizer  may  serve  exactly  as  well  as  a  score.  The  much 
discussed  secondary  effects  of  pollination  should  not  be 
allowed  too  greatly  to  influence  the  planting  of  pollinizers. 
The  direct  effects  of  crossing  certain  varieties  have  not  been 
established.  Variations  in  the  characteristics  of  different 
apples  are  now  more  generally  attributed  to  bud  variation 
than  to  cross-pollination.  It  is  generally  conceded  that 
flavor,  quality  or  color  of  apples  is  not  directly  affected  by 
the  cross-pollinating  variety. 

This  should  in  no  way  be  construed  as  an  argument 
against  cross-pollination,  for  in  the  case  of  the  self-sterile 
or  partially  self-sterile  varieties  it  is  absolutely  essential. 
Cross-pollination  may  effect  the  size  of  fruit  and  may 


Fruit  Setting  and  Pollination  255 

increase  the  set.     Darwin  states :   "  Nature  abhors  self- 
fertilization." 

ESSENTIALS    FOE   A    GOOD    POLLINIZEK 

The  following  points  should  be  considered  in  selecting 
varieties  for  pollination:  (1)  Not  more  than  one  row  in 
six  is  necessary  to  insure  certainty  of  proper  pollination 
under  normal  weather  conditions  and  in  the  presence  of 
pollinizing  agents.  However,  attention  is  called  to  the 
fact  that  varieties  to  be  handled  economically  should  occur 
in  plantings  of  at  least  two  or  three  rows.  (2)  Varieties 
should  bloom  at  the  same  time.  This  is  clearly  necessary, 
otherwise  the  pollen  of  one  variety  would  be  entirely  gone 
before  the  other  bloomed,  making  cross-pollination  impossi- 
ble. (3)  Varieties  must  have  an  affinity  for  each  other; 
that  is  to  say,  the  pollen  of  one  must  be  acceptable  to  the 
pistils  of  the  other.  It  is  well  in  this  connection  to  men- 
tion the  fact  that  pears  will  not  serve  to  pollinate  apples 
or  vice-versa.  (4)  Varieties  must  be  good  pollen-pro- 
ducers. If  varieties  which  produce  little  pollen  are 
planted  with  those  producing  abundant  pollen,  the  former 
but  not  the  latter  will  be  benefited.  It  is  important  here 
to  mention  that  Winesap  is  a  very  shy  pollen-producer  and 
should  not  be  planted  for  the  purpose  of  pollinating  other 
varieties.  (5)  Varieties  should  come  into  bearing  at 
about  the  same  age.  Such  kinds  as  the  Northern  Spy 
would  not  immediately  serve  as  pollinizers  for  the  Wagener 
or  Twenty  Ounce,  since  the  former  is  an  extremely  late 
bearer.  (6)  The  varieties  should  be  commercial.  While 
this  is  not  at  all  necessary  so  far  as  cross-pollination  is 
concerned,  it  is  highly  important  from  a  commercial  stand- 
point. It  is  clearly  inadvisable  to  plant  non-commercial 


256  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

varieties  as  pollinizers  when  so  many  good  commercial 
sorts  are  readily  available. 

It  is  important  in  any  discussion  of  pollination  to  name 
some  of  the  varieties  which  are  known  as  uncertain  or  self- 
sterile  as  well  as  some  of  those  known  as  self-fertile. 
Cross-pollination  with  some  other  variety  is  usually  advis- 
able, since  in  most  cases  it  increases  the  set  of  fruit. 

UNCERTAIN  OB  SEXF-STEBILE          DEPENDABLE  OB  SELF-FEBTILE 
VARIETIES.  VARIETIES. 

Arkansas  Ben  Davis 

Tompkins  King  Baldwin 

Grimes  Oldenburg 

Jonathan  Rhode  Island  Greening 

Gravenstein  Yellow  Transparent 

Northern  Spy  Yellow  Newtown 

Ortley 

Red  Limbertwig 

Rome  Beauty 

Esopus 

Twenty  Ounce 

Winesap 

The  following  varieties  are  grouped  according  to  their 
desirability  for  securing  best  results  in  pollination.  Each 
column  contains  those  which  are  well  pollinated  by  any 
one  or  more  of  the  varieties  in  the  same  column.  Certain 
limitations  should  be  placed  on  this  table,  since  in  certain 
localities  some  compatible  kinds  bloom  too  early  to  pollin- 
ate later-blooming  varieties.  However,  the  pollen  of  each 
has  an  affinity  for  the  pistil  of  the  varieties  in  the  same 
column. 


Fruit  Setting  and  Pollination  257 

I  II 

Arkansas  Black  Wealthy 

Baldwin  Rome  Beauty 

Ben  Davis  Yellow  Transparent 

Gano  Yellow  Bellflower 

Grimes  White  Winter  Peannain 

Jonathan  Winesap 

Mclntosh  Willow  Twig 

Yellow  Xewtown  Wagener 

Northern  Spy  Esopus 

Ortley 

Gravenstein 

Oldenburg 

Red  Astrachan 

Many  other  varieties  might  be  named,  but  these  lists 
contain  a  sufficient  number  to  satisfy  the  commercial 
grower.  If  a  region  is  particularly  adapted  to  a  combina- 
tion of  any  two  or  three  commercial  sorts,  they  may  be 
interplanted  with  great  success  without  detracting  from 
the  very  important  practice  of  limiting  the  number  to  a 
few  commercial  varieties.  At  the  same  time  such  com- 
binations will  insure  abundant  opportunity  for  proper 
cross-pollination. 


CHAPTER  XII 
PRUNING  AND  THINNING 

PETJNTNO  will  always  remain  a  field  for  independent  and 
individual  study.  Xo  other  orchard  practice  has  aroused 
in  the  minds  of  fruit-growers  and  horticulturists  greater 
variance  in  opinion.  While  investigators  and  observers 
are  in  accord  on  many  of  the  principles  of  pruning,  their 
application  must  always  remain,  to  some  extent,  an  indi- 
vidual problem.  An  apple-grower  would  do  well  to  study 
pruning  in  the  most  productive  orchards  of  his  community 
and  observe  the  system  that  has  been  practiced  on  the  best 
and  most  productive  trees. 

It  is  the  purpose  to  give  a  brief  description  of  the 
several  pruning  practices  in  use  in  the  more  important 
fruit-producing  sections  and  to  state  briefly  the  advantages 
and  disadvantages  of  such  practices. 

Before  planting,  the  ends  of  all  broken  or  injured  roots 
should  be  removed.  This  is  done  not  with  the  idea  of 
shortening  the  roots,  but  with  the  view  of  leaving  smooth 
rather  than  broken  and  ragged  root  ends.  Occasionally 
a  few  roots  may  be  removed  so  as  to  avoid  crowding  and 
secure  better  distribution  of  the  root  system. 

Since  a  large  proportion  of  the  root  system  is  removed 

when  the  tree  is  taken  from  the  nursery,  it  is  necessary  to 

remove  a  portion  of  the  top  to  restore  a  proper  balance 

between  the  root  system  and  top.     Again,  the  removal  of 

258 


Pruning  and  Thinning 


259 


a  portion  of  the  top  determines 
the  height  of  head  and  encourages 
the  formation  of  a  stocky  and  vig- 
orous framework. 

The  height  of  heading  will  vary 
with  the  type  of  training  to  be  fol- 
lowed and  the  locality.  Lower 
heading  is  practiced  with  the  open 
center  type  of  tree  than  with  the 
leader  or  modified  types,  as  is 
pointed  out  elsewhere  in  this  chap- 
ter. In  those  sections  in  which 
sun-scald  is  prevalent,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  head  lower  than  where  this 
trouble  is  not  a  factor.  The 
height  of  heading  apples  at  planting  time  may  thus  vary 
from  20  to  36  inches.  (See  Fig.  4.) 


FIG.  4. —  Showing 
framework  of  a  young 
Jonathan  tree.  The 
trunk  is  too  short  and 
the  branches  too  nearly 
horizontal. 


TYPES  OF  TEAINING  APPLE  TEEES 

All  pruning  practices  are  applied  with  the  idea  of 
developing  the  type  of  tree  suited  to  the  local  conditions 
or  conforming  to  the  ideas  of  the  individual.  The  prun- 
ing given  trees  during  the  first  few  years  may  be  referred 
to  as  training.  There  are  several  methods  of  training 
apple  trees,  those  in  common  use  in  commercial  regions 
throughout  the  United  States  being :  The  "  natural  form  " ; 
the  "  central  leader  "  type ;  the  "  open  center,"  or  "vase- 
shaped  "  tree ;  the  "  double  headed  "  type ;  and  the  "  mod- 
ified leader,"  or  "  modified  open  center  "  tree. 


260  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

Natural  form. 

This  system  of  training  has  been  followed  largely  in  the 
old  orchards  of  Xew  York,  Xew  England  and  some  of 
the  middle  western  states,  and  by  growers  generally  who 
had  no  definite  type  in  mind.  Very  little  pruning  is 
required  as  compared  with  other  methods  of  training. 
The  top  ordinarily  consists  of  a  cluster  of  branches  spring- 
ing from  one  point  and  forming  a  round  head.  The  pruner 
merely  removes  crowding  and  crossing  branches  and  limits 
the  number  of  main  branches.  In  the  more  humid 
climates,  later  pruning  is  confined  to  the  removal  of  cross- 
ing and  crowding  branches  and  to  the  shortening  of  way- 
ward branches  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  tree  bal- 
ance. In  the  drier  climates  of  the  Middle  West,  all  the 
branches  are  usually  headed  back  for  the  first  few  years 
in  order  to  encourage  stockiness. 

Advantages. 

1.  Most  simple  type  of  training  and  work  may  be  done  by 
unskilled  men. 

Disadvantages. 

1.  Too  many  main  branches  are  frequently  left,  resulting  in 
crowding  and  overlapping  main  branches. 

2.  Splitting  at  the  crotches  is  not  uncommon. 

3.  Frequently  main  branches  are  not  stocky  enough  to  sup- 
port loads  of  fruit  in  natural  positions,  the  result  being  over- 
lapping branches  and  much  poorly  colored  fruit. 

4.  Uneven  distribution  of  fruiting  wood  is  not  uncommon 
when  trees  become  mature. 

5.  Trees  in  the  orchard  lack  uniformity. 

6.  Trees  of  this  type  often  require  heroic  treatment  later  on. 


PLATE  XVI. —  Diseases  of  the  apple.  1,  Bitter-rot  on  Pippin  showing  spots 
and  red  specks.  2,  Sooty-fungus  and  fly-speck.  3,  Apples  affected  with  the 
scab  fungus.  4,  Leaf  afl'ected  with  apple-scab. 


Pruning  and  Thinning 


261 


Central  leader  system. 

By  this  method  one  central 
leader  is  allowed  to  develop  year 
after  year  until  its  increasing 
height  is  naturally  checked  as  the 
tree  begins  fruiting.  Such  lat- 
eral branches  are  allowed  to  re- 
main as  will  not  crowd  and  will 
give  the  best  distribution  and  bal- 
ance in  later  years.  The  lateral 
branches  are  considerably  smaller 
than  the  central  leader  and  strong 
unions  are  formed.  While  this 
system  of  pruning  has  never  been 
widely  practiced  by  commercial 
fruit-growers,  it  has  had  some 
popularity,  especially  for  dwarfs 
and  certain  varieties  such  as  the 
Jonathan  and  members  of  the  Ben  Davis  group. 
Fig.  5.) 


FIG.  5. —  A  well 
pruned  young  Jonathan 
tree  trained  to  the  cen- 
tral leader  form. 


(See 


Advantages. 

1.  Strong  trees  are  produced.     Crotches  seldom  split  apart. 

2.  Great  skill  is  not  required  to  inaugurate  and  adhere  to 
this  type  of  pruning. 

3.  Trees  like  the  Ehode  Island  Greening  and  Jonathan  with 
tendencies  to  develop  low  drooping  side  branches  lend  them- 
selves to  the  method. 

Disadvantages. 

1.  It  is  difficult  to  keep  trees  opened  up  sufficiently  to  permit 
light  to  penetrate  to  the  inner  parts. 

2.  Trees  usually  become  too  high  thereby  making  orchard 
operations  more  difficult  and  expensive. 


262 


The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 


FIG.  6. —  An  exces- 
sively pruned  young  De- 
licious tree  carved  out 
to  the  vase  form. 


Open  center,  or  vase-shape  (Fig.  6). 

The  open  center  type  of  train- 
ing was  the  first  definite  system 
generally  advocated  after  commer- 
cial apple-growing  became  estab- 
lished in  this  country  on  a  highly 
specialized  basis.  It  was  for  a 
time  quite  generally  adopted  by 
fruit-growers  in  all  sections  of  the 
United  States  as  the  ideal  method 
of  training  and  is  still  advocated 
by  some  professional  horticultur- 
ists and  is  practiced  by  many 
fruit-growers.  The  development 
of  certain  weaknesses  in  the 
strictly  vase-shaped  tree  has  led  to  a  modification  of  this 
type  of  pruning,  however. 

In  starting  an  open  center  tree,  one-year-old  whips  are 
usually  headed  at  20  to  26  inches  at  planting  time.  The 
following  winter  or  spring  three  to  five  well  distributed 
branches  are  usually  chosen  to  form  the  permanent  frame- 
work of  the  tree,  the  leader  being  removed  the  first  year. 
The  three  to  five  main  branches  growing  outward  and 
upward  give  the  vase-like  shape  to  the  tree.  After  the  first 
season's  growth,  all  the  leaders  are  cut  back  heavily  to 
approximately  the  same  height.  Equal  cutting  is  con- 
tinued each  year  until  the  framework  is  completed,  in  order 
that  no  one  of  the  main  scaffold  branches  may  attain  prom- 
inence over  the  other.  The  center  is  kept  sufficiently  open 
to  permit  the  penetration  of  light  throughout  the  tree. 
The  result  is  a  spreading  low-headed  tree,  sufficiently  open 
to  permit  good  coloring  of  the  fruit. 


Pruning  and  Thinning  263 

It  is  usually  customary  to  remove  some  50  to  60  per  cent 
of  the  first  year's  growth  on  each  of  the  selected  scaffold 
branches,  provided  the  tree  has  made  a  vigorous  growth. 
However,  as  previously  mentioned,  all  of  the  scaffold 
branches  should  be  cut  back  to  approximately  the  same 
height,  measured  from  the  ground.  In  the  succeeding 
year,  two  secondary  branches  are  usually  selected  on  each 
primary  branch,  the  others  being  removed.  The  next  year 
these  secondary  branches  are  usually  shortened  by  the 
removal  of  about  40  per  cent  of  the  season's  growth. 
However,  the  secondary  branches  should  not  be  left  shorter 
than  a  foot. 

Pruning  during  the  succeeding  two  or  three  seasons  is 
along  similar  lines,  except  that  the  amount  of  heading  back 
is  lessened  each  year,  provided  the  tree  does  not  make  too 
rank  a  growth. 

Advantages  of  the  vase-shaped  tree. 

1.  The  penetration  of  light  and  air  is  permitted  to  all  parts 
of  the  top,  which  results  in  a  high  percentage  of  functioning 
fruiting  wood  and  much  highly  colored  fruit. 

2.  The  method  results  in  a  low,  spreading,  well  balanced  tree. 

3.  The  type  and  form  is  easily  established  and  maintained. 

4.  The  ideal  may  be  closely  approached  with  every  one-year- 
old  whip. 

Disadvantages. 

1.  The  trees  are  often  structurally  weak,  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  scaffold  branches  frequently  issue  from  practically  the  same 
point,  thus  leaving  weak  crotches. 

2.  Artificial  supports  are  frequently  necessary  to  avoid  split- 
ting at  the  crotches  when  the  trees  reach  bearing  age. 

3.  When  one  main  or  scaffold  branch  splits  off,  the  other 


264  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

scaffold  branches   are  weakened   at  the  crotches   and  further 
breaking  usually  follows. 

4.  If  one  main  branch  splits  off,  the  balance  of  the  tree  is 
permanently  injured. 

5.  The  amount  of  bearing  wood  is  limited. 

The  double-headed  type.  < 

In  this  type  of  leader  tree,  developed  in  New  York  and 
West  Virginia  and  in  use  there,  two  whorls  of  main 
branches  or  scaffolds  are  used  and  the  framework  is  formed 
by  six  or  eight  branches  arranged  along  two  or  three  feet  of 
a  strong  central  stem.  If  a  one-year-old  whip  is  planted, 
the  heading  is  done  at  about  24  to  36  inches,  which  leaves 
the  lowest  scaffold  branch  about  20  to  30  inches  from  the 
ground.  After  the  first  year's  growth  and  before  growth 
starts  the  following  spring,  three  or  at  most  four  well  dis- 
tributed branches  are  selected  and  all  others  removed. 
The  remaining  branches  excepting  the  leader  are  headed 
back  to  14  to  16  inches  in  length.  The  leader  or  upright 
branch  is  left  with  16  to  18  inches  of  new  growth. 

After  the  second  season's  growth  has  been  made,  two 
secondary  branches  are  selected  on  each  primary  branch 
except  the  leader  and  the  others  are  removed.  These 
secondary  branches  are  then  headed  back  to  18  or^  20 
inches  in  length.  Long  willowy  branches  are  headed  back 
even  more  severely.  The  second  year's  growth  on  the 
leader  is  removed  with  the  exception  of  the  most  upright 
development  and  any  short  spurs.  About  16  to  18  inches 
of  the  new  growth  of  the  leader  is  left.  This  leaves  the 
leader  extending  2,y2  to  3  feet  above  the  first  scaffold. 

After  the  third  season's  growth,  the  lateral  main 
branches  and  their  secondary  growth  are  handled  in  a 


Pruning  and  Thinning  865 

manner  similar  to  that  following  the  second  season's 
growth,  except  that  the  heading  back  is  less  severe.  It  is 
after  the  third  year  that  the  second  story  of  scaffold 
branches  is  started  from  the  central  leader  at  a  distance  of 
about  30  to  40  inches  above  the  first  set  of  branches. 
Three  or  four  laterals  are  selected  for  this  upper  story  and 
the  others  are  removed.  The  second  story  scaffold  branches 
are  then  treated  like  the  first  ones  were  two  years  earlier. 
The  upward  growth  of  the  leader  is  now  suppressed  and 
the  tree  is  continued  with  an  open  center.  It  is  sometimes 
advisable  to  add  a  third  story. 

Advantages. 

1.  The   system    results    in    a   strong   tree   since   the   lateral 
branches  are  smaller  than  the  central  leader  and  therefore  do 
not  form  weak  crotches,  as  are  likely  to  occur  when  all  of  the 
main  branches  are  of  equal  size. 

2.  The  weight  of  the  tree  is  distributed  among  six  to  eight 
main  branches  well  placed  on  a  central  trunk  rather  than  among 
three  or  four  branches  as  is  the  case  in  open  center  trees. 

3.  The  trees  have  a  greater  bearing  surface  than  do  open 
center  trees,  since  the  space  in-  the  center  is  more  completely 
occupied. 

4.  Sufficient  light  and  air  are  permitted  to  all  parts  of  the 
tree  since  on  the  discontinuance  of  the  central  leader  above  the 
second  scaffold  the  top  then  assumes  some  of  the  characteristics 
of  a  strictly  open  center  tree. 

5.  A  rather  low  spreading  top  is  secured  and  at  the  same  time 
a  somewhat  larger  tree  than  under  the  open  center  system. 

Disadvantages. 

1.  In  practice  there  is  a  tendency  for  growers  to  leave  too 
many  scaffold  branches  and  thereby  create  a  crowded  condition. 

2.  There  is  danger  of  either  the  upper  or  lower  set  of  scaffold 
branches  becoming  dominant  unless  the  pruner  uses  skill  and 
good  judgment  in  maintaining  the  proper  tree  balance. 


266 


The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 


The  modified  leader  tree. 

In  reacting  from  the  two  extremes  embodied  in  the 
strictly  "  vase-shaped  "  tree  and  the  central  leader  type, 
many  commercial  apple-growers  in  the  leading  producing 
regions  have  adopted  the  "  modified  leader  "  system,  thus 
appropriating  the  best  features  in  both  extreme  types.  As 
the  name  implies,  this  system  develops  a  tree  of  a  modified 
leader  type. 

Starting  with  a  whip  headed  at  30  to  36  inches,  four  to 
seven  scaffold  branches  well  distributed  along  a  central 
trunk  after  the  fashion  of  an  as- 
cending spiral  are  permitted  to  re- 
main and  form  the  framework  of 
the  tree.  It  is  impossible  to  se- 
cure all  of  these  branches  from  a 
single  season's  growth,  from  two  to 
three  being  selected  the  first  year 
and  the  remainder  later.  The  per- 
manent framework  may  not  be  se- 
cured short  of  three  or  four  years. 
One  point  to  be  remembered  is 
that  scaffold  branches  should  be 
spaced  well  apart.  Branches  that 
are  only  two  or  three  inches  apart 
will  be  entirely  too  close  when  the  tree  reaches  maturity. 
Some  growers  prefer  scaffold  branches  one  foot  apart. 
(See  Fig.  7.) 

The  leader  is  permitted  to  develop  during  the  first  three 
or  four  years  while  the  framework  branches  are  being 
selected.  The  first  year's  growth  will  usually  consist  of  an 
almost  upright  branch  together  with  several  laterals.  It 
may  be  possible  to  select  two  or  even  three  well  distributed 


FIG.  7. —  Mature  Jon- 
athan tree  with  com- 
mon type  of  frame- 
work. 


Pruning  and  Thinning  267 

scaffold  branches  after  the  first  year.  All  others  except 
the  leader  are  removed  and  the  remaining  branches  are  cut 
back.  In  order  that  the  leader  may  dominate  for  a  time, 
it  is  left  somewhat  longer  than  the  other  branches.  On 
vigorous  trees  as  much  as  40  to  50  per  cent  of  the  leader 
is  removed  and  from  50  to  60  per  cent  of  the  laterals. 
The  whole  question  of  heading  back'is  a  subject  of  varied 
'opinion  which  will  be  discussed  later. 

Additional  laterals  will  develop  during  the  second  year. 
One  or  two  desirable  scaffold  branches  may  then  be  added 
to  the  framework.  The  leader  and  selected  laterals  are 
treated  in  the  manner  described  for  the  year  previous, 
although  heading  back  is  usually  less  severe. 

The  system  is  continued  during  the  third  and  if  neces- 
sary even  to  a  fourth  or  fifth  year.  When  suitable  scaffold 
branches  have  been  developed,  the  leader  is  removed  and 
there  remains  a  tree  with  central  trunk  about  six  or  seven 
feet  high  along  which  are  spaced  three  td  six  or  even  more 
main  laterals  extending  outward  and  upward  in  all  direc- 
tions at  intervals  possibly  of  10  to  12  inches. 

Advantages. 

1.  This  system  of  training  results  in  a  strong  tree  since  the 
central  leader  is  larger  than  the  main  or  scaffold  branches,  thus 
leaving  strong  unions,  which  are  not  likely  to  result  in  split- 
ting. 

2.  The  weight  of  the  tree  is  distributed  along  a  trunk  and 
among  several  main  branches  rather  than  among  three  or  four 
branches  with  no  central  axis  as  is  the  case  in  open  center  trees. 

3.  The    system    encourages    a    good    distribution    of    main 
branches  about  and  along  the  central  axis. 

4.  Should  one  main  branch  break  or  be  lost  because  of  disease, 
there  is  still  a  sufficient  number  from  which  laterals  may  be  grown 
to  fill  the  opening  and  thus  preserve  the  tree  balance. 


268  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

5.  Trees  trained  in  this  manner  have  a  large  capacity  for 
fruiting. 

6.  Light  and  air  are  admitted  to  all  parts,  insuring  fruit-spur 
activity  and  highly  colored  fruit. 

7.  The  resulting  tree  is  low  headed  and  spreading  and  per- 
mits economical  orchard  operations. 

Disadvantages. 

1.  More  judgment  is  required  in  building  this  type  of  tree 
than  any  of  the  others.     Untrained  labor  cannot  be  trusted  with 
the  shaping  of  the  trees. 

2.  There   is  danger   of  some  main  branches,   especially  the 
upper  ones,  outgrowing  the  lower  ones,  thereby  suppressing  the 
latter  to  such  an  extent  that  they  no  longer  serve  as  main  or 
scaffold  branches. 

3.  When  building  the  young  tree,  pruners  are  apt  to  leave 
the  leader  too  long  or  too  short  as  compared  with  the  laterals, 
thus  destroying  proper  balance. 

GENERAL  TREATMENT  OF  YOUNG  TREES 

The  foregoing  has  been  a  general  description  of  the  dif- 
ferent types  of  trees,  but  the  reader  has  gained  little  infor- 
mation as  to  what  actually  is  done  each  year  during 
the  formative  period  of  the  tree.  The  amount  of  cutting 
back  and  thinning  out  does  not  vary  greatly  with  the  type 
of  training.  A  more  detailed  discussion  for  the  modified 
leader  tree  will,  therefore,  serve  for  the  other  types  as  well. 

After  first  season. 

If  there  has  been  a  vigorous  growth  of  more  than  30 
inches,  the  scaffold  branches  are  shortened  to  about  50  per 
cent  and  the  leader  to  60  per  cent.  If  growth  does  not 
exceed  20  inches,  the  leader  is  shortened  to  about  14  inches 
and  the  laterals  to  10  or  12  inches.  When  possible,  the 


Pruning  and  Thinning  269 

secondary  laterals  should  be  developed  on  the  main  scaffold 
branches  at  a  distance  not  closer  than  one  foot  or  greater 
than  20  inches  from  the  trunk.  When  the  scaffold  limbs 
make  slow  growth,  it  may  be  necessary  to  delay  the  develop- 
ment of  secondary  branches  by  cutting  back  the  scaffold 
limbs  to  two  or  three  buds. 

After  second  season. 

Heading  back  should  be  less  severe  after  the  second  sea- 
son's growth.  Some  recommend  leaving  about  20  inches 
new  growth  on  the  leader  and  about  15  inches  on  the  scaf- 
fold branches.  Others  think  that  very  little  heading  back 
should  be  done  after  this  time  regardless  of  the  amount  of 
growth.  There  is  a  growing  sentiment  that  trees  should  be 
headed  back  very  little  after  the  second  or  third  year.  It 
is  of  course  necessary  to  check  wayward  and  crossing 
branches.  Furthermore  when  growth  is  vigorous,  heading 
back  may  be  necessary  in  order  to  encourage  stockiness. 
If  long  rangy  growths  are  left,  they  will  not  be  strong 
enough  to  carry  heavy  loads  of  fruit  in  later  years.  Dur- 
ing the  first  two  or  three  years,  certain  of  the  main  branches 
may  outgrow  the  others,  in  which  case  the  stronger  grow- 
ing ones  should  be  headed  back  more  severely  than  the 
weaker  growing  ones. 

After  third  season. 

The  main  laterals  may  be  cut  back  lightly  to  about  the 
same  length,  slight  predominance  being  given  to  the  leader 
if  it  is  retained.  When  the  modified  leader  type  is 
being  followed,  the  third  year  may  see  the  development 
of  a  sufficient  number  of  scaffold  branches.  If  not?  the 


270  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

leader  is  maintained  for  one  or  more  years,  at  which  time 
it  is  removed  in  order  to  open  up  the  center  of  the  tree. 

Small  side  shoots  and  fruit-spurs  developing  in  the 
middle  of  the  tree  during  this  time  should  be  left.  Such 
wood  is  productive  of  early  fruit.  Furthermore,  an  abund- 
ance of  foliage  and  small  twigs  are  necessary  to  protect  the 
main  limbs  from  the  sun  and  also  to  aid  growth.  There 
must  be  plenty  of  foliage  and  twig  growth  if  young  trees 
are  to  produce  wood. 

VEGETATIVE,  TRANSITORY  AND  FRUITAGE  STAGES 

A  tree  may  be  said  to  pass  through  three  distinct  periods : 
(1)  formative  period,  (2)  transition  period,  and  (3)  fruit- 
ing period.  The  treatment,  both  in  regard  to  pruning  and 
soil  management,  changes  materially  with  each  of  these 
periods.  It  is  during  the  formative  period  that  the  tree 
devotes  its  energies  to  the  formation  of  wood  growth.  The 
proper  selection,  distribution  and  training  of  scaffold 
branches  during  this  time  determines  the  ability  of  the 
tree  to  bear  and  carry  heavy  loads  of  fruit  in  later  years. 
The  length  of  the  formative  period  is  usually  from  four  to 
six  years,  depending  on  the  region  and  treatment  provided. 

Transition  period. 

Although  less  distinct,  this  period  is  critical.  Between 
the  fifth  and  eighth  year  the  tree  is  undergoing  a  change 
from  vegetative  to  heavy  fruit  production.  The  exact  age 
will  vary  with  the  region,  variety  and  treatment.  Some 
varieties  may  not  pass  through  this  period  until  they 
become  ten  or  twelve  years  old.  Other  varieties  and  par- 
ticularly when  grown  under  irrigation  begin  to  bear  heav- 
ily at  six  and  seven  years. 


Pruning  and  Thinning  271 

Pruning  during  the  transition  period  should  be  light 
and  should  consist  almost  entirely  of  thinning  out,  with 
little  or  no  heading  back.  The  thinning  out  should  be 
confined  largely  to  the  top  and  ends  of  the  branches  and  to 
shoot  growths  of  the  previous  season.  If  the  tree  is  becom- 
ing too  thick,  two-  and  even  three-year-old  branches  should 
be  removed. 

Too  often  the  small  lateral  limbs  and  fruiting  wood 
toward  the  center  of  the  tree  are  removed,  thus  forcing  all 
the  fruiting  area  toward  the  tip  ends  of  the  limbs.  Again, 
tops  frequently  become  so  dense  that  the  inside  spurs  slough 
off  due  to  lack  of  sunlight  and  air. 

The  fruiting  period. 

All  pruning  during  this  period  is  to  develop  and  main- 
tain a  liberal  supply  of  fruiting  wood,  well  distributed 
throughout  the  entire  tree.  This  pruning  will  consist 
largely  of  thinning  out  branches  in  order  to  maintain  a 
liberal  supply  of  functioning  fruit-spurs,  and  in  order  to 
improve  the  quality  of  the  fruit  produced.  Weak  or  way- 
ward branches  should  be  removed.  The  tree  should  be 
kept  open  and  shapely  and  in  a  vigorous  growing  condition. 
Regular  annual  pruning  is  essential. 

Fruit-l>uds. 

Fruiirbuds  may  be  regarded  as  the  actual  fruit  manu- 
facturing machinery  of  a  tree.  In  case  of  the  apple,  the 
fruit  is  borne  mostly  on  spurs  which  develop  from  lateral 
buds  on  the  shoots  of  the  preceding  season.  In  certain 
varieties  of  apples,  such  as  Jonathan,  Gravenstein,  New- 
town  and  others,  much  of  the  first  crop  of  fruit-buds  is 
borne  terminally  on  shoots.  Axillary  buds  are  also  borne 


272  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

on  one-year-old  wood,  but  on  the  side  of  the  shoots  instead 
of  at  the  tips.  Spurs  are  nothing  more  than  very  short 
branches  on  which  terminal  fruiting  buds  are  borne  every 
alternate  year,  under  favorable  conditions.  These  buds 
are  usually  developed  from  branches  two  years  and  older. 
If  fruit-spurs  are  properly  cared  for,  they  may  live  and 
produce  fruit-buds  in  alternate  seasons  for  at  least  eight 
or  ten  years. 

All  lateral  buds  of  the  shoots  of  any  one  season  do  not 
develop  into  spurs  the  following  year.  Some  of  them  grow 
out  into  new  or  branch  shoots,  many  others  remain  dormant. 
Spurs  are  largely  developed  from  the  large,  plump,  vigor- 
ous lateral  buds. 

Having  developed  a  large  number  of  spurs  evenly  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  tree,  it  is  absolutely  essential  to 
conserve  this  fruiting  wood.  In  a  great  many  cases,  the 
fruiting  machinery  toward  the  center  of  a  tree  fails  to 
produce  fruit.  This  is  due  principally  to  the  lack  of  sun- 
shine and  air,  two  factors  on  which  a  spur  is  entirely 
dependent  for  its  ability  to  function.  The  pruning,  then, 
should  be  with  the  idea  of  leaving  spurs  distributed 
throughout  the  entire  tree  and  of  getting  plenty  of  sunlight 
and  air  to  each  individual  spur.  This  can  be  accomplished 
by  thinning  out  as  opposed  to  heading  back.  It  permits 
more  light  to  percolate  through  the  tree  and  gives  the 
leaves  in  the  center  a  better  chance  to  manufacture  the  food 
materials  necessary  for  the  formation  of  large  strong  fruits 
buds. 

Changing  system  of  pruning. 

After  the  form  of  a  tree  has  once  been  established,  it  is 
not  considered  advisable  to  change  its  type  unless  its  form 


Pruning  and  Thinning 


273 


may  be  modified  without  drastic  pruning.  An  open  center 
tree,  for  example,  should  be  continued  as  such.  A  modi- 
fied leader  should  not  be  removed  in  ^ 

later  years  in  order  to  develop  an 
open  center  tree.  The  type  of  train- 
ing should  be  established  during  the 
first  three  years  and  this  same  style 
should  be  followed  out  year  after 
year. 

Trees  four  to  ten  years  old  that 
have  been  pruned  with  no  definite 
type  in  view  often  present  some  very 
perplexing  problems.  The  number 
and  proper  distribution  of  scaffold 
branches  should  be  definitely  chosen 
and  part  of  the  most  objectionable 
branches  removed  the  first  year.  In 
cases  where  there  are  a  dozen  main 
branches  when  half  that  number 
would  suifice,  it  may  be  advisable  to 
select  only  six  for  the  permanent 
framework.  The  removal  of  the  ob- 
jectionable branches  should  be  distributed  over  a  period  of 
two  or  three  years,  however. 

Young  trees  which  have  been  neglected  should  be  cut 
back  rather  heavily  to  encourage  the  development  of  good 
strong  laterals  near  the  base  of  the  limb.  When  heading 
back  has  been  neglected  and  the  result  has  been  long  rangy 
branches  with  weak  lateral  development,  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  cut  back  into  two-  or  three-year-old  wood.  When 
a  good  side  branch  is  available,  it  is  advisable  to  cut  back 
to  the  side  branch  instead  of  to  a  bud. 


Pro.  8. —  Common 
type  of  trunk  and 
lower  framework  of 
Rome  Beauty  un- 
der northwest  con- 
ditions. 


274  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

Crossing  and  interfering  branches  should  be  removed. 
If  too  many  long  parallel  limbs  have  developed,  part  of 
them  should  be  taken  out  in  order  to  allow  the  remainder 
freer  development.  Two  limbs  which  emerge  from  a  com- 
mon point  usually  result  in  a  weak  crotch,  a  condition 
which  can  be  overcome  by  unequal  cutting,  i.  e.  cutting  one 
limb  heavier  than  the  other. 

Bearing  trees. 

A  tree  that  has  been  handled  properly  up  to  the  bearing 
age,  that  has  its  framework  well  established,  and  its  fruit- 
ing machinery  well  distributed,  will  require  little  subse- 
quent annual  pruning.  As  previously  described,  the  treat- 
ment of  a  bearing  tree,  whatever  the  type,  will  consist 
largely  in  thinning  out  the  new  growth  near  the  tops  or 
outer  parts  of  limbs  to  allow  a  good  circulation  of  sunlight 
and  air.  Wayward  and  crossing  branches  should  be 
checked  or  removed. 

Gardner,  of  the  Missouri  Experimental  Station,  likens 
the  fruit-spur  to  a  factory.  ,He  refers  to  the  spurs  as 
little  machines.  The  raw  materials  from  which  fruit  is 
produced  come  from  the  soil  and  air  and  are  manufactured 
into  a  finished  product  by  the  leaves  through  the  aid  of 
sunlight  The  latter  is  classed  as  the  cheapest,  most 
abundant  and  yet  most  valuable  form  of  motive  power. 
The  performance  of  every  spur  is  dependent  on  a  certain 
amount  of  sunlight.  (See  Plate  XVII.) 

Each  individual  spur  relies  on  its  own  leaves  for  the 
manufacture  of  the  starches  and  sugars  which  it  uses. 
It  cannot  draw  on  other  nearby  spurs  or  on  other  parts 
of  the  tree  for  maintenance.  As  the  manufacture  of  food 
materials  is  absolutely  dependent  on  light,  the  production 


Pruning  and  Thinning  275 

of  fruit-buds  and  fruit  is  likewise  dependent  on  sufficient 
quantities  of  light. 

Thinning  out  the  top  and  outer  portions,  then,  is  the 
most  effective  means  of  letting  light  in  to  each  individual 
spur,  thereby  distributing  the  motive  power  necessary  to 
develop  activity  within  each  individual  spur  and  increase 
the  amount  of  fruit  produced.  The  removal  of  a  few 
large  limbs  near  the  ground  only  leaves  large  holes  and 
open  spaces.  The  cutting  of  lower  limbs  and  those  near 
the  body  of  the  tree  does  not  permit  sunlight  to  enter  into 
the  parts  where  it  is  most  needed  nor  does  it  permit  the 
distribution  of  sunlight  and  air  in  sufficient  quantities  to 
modify  the  functioning  of  fruit-spurs.  Removing  large 
limbs  leaves  vacant  spaces  and  admits  sunlight  in  shafts 
rather  than  allowing  it  to  penetrate  evenly  throughout  all 
parts. 

It  is  better  to  remove  many  small  branches  in  thin- 
ning the  outer  parts  of  trees.  This  leaves  the  outer  fruit- 
ing wood  evenly  distributed  and  still  open  enough  to 
permit  the  entrance  of  sunlight  and  air.  The  removal  of 
small  branches  requires  time  and  makes  it  necessary  for 
the  pruner  either  to  use  a  ladder  or  climb  well  out  near 
the  ends  of  the  main  branches,  but  this  careful  work  will 
prove  profitable. 

Distribution  and  establishment  of  fruiting  wood. 

Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  laid  on  the  distribution 
and  establishment  of  functioning  fruiting  wood  throughout 
the  entire  tree.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  trees  which 
have  been  stripped  of  all  fruiting  wood  except  near  the 
ends  of  the  branches.  For  example,  limbs  20  to  25  feet 
long  bear  all  their  fruit  from  within  5  or  6  feet  from  the 


276  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

tip,  the  balance  of  the  limb  being  a  "  boarder  "  and  living 
at  the  expense  of  the  productive  area.  It  is  highly  de- 
sirable to  have  several  well  developed  laterals  along  the 
scaffold  branches  in  order  that  the  fruiting  area  may  be 
brought  nearer  the  ground. 

TIME    OF   PRUNING 

No  concrete  rules  can  be  laid  down  as  to  the  best  time 
for  pruning,  as  no  one  time  will  best  meet  all  conditions. 
Pruning  in  most  sections  may  usually  be  practiced  in  any 
favorable  weather  in  the  dormant  season. 

In  the  Virginias  and  sections  of  the  Pacific  Coast,  prun- 
ing is  done  from  November  to  early  April,  while  in  the 
New  England  and  middle  western  states,  most  of  the 
work  is  during  the  spring  months.  Generally  speaking, 
a  slight  preference  should  be  given  to  pruning  in  late 
winter  and  early  spring,  because  the  wounds  heal  over  more 
readily.  Many  growers  are  prejudiced  against  pruning 
when  the  wood  is  frozen.  Some  maintain  that  drying  out 
or  dying  back  is  likely  to  result  from  early  winter  prun- 
ing, but  the  writers  do  not  know  of  serious  injury  of  this 
nature  in  bearing  trees. 

If  one  has  a  large  acreage  to  prune,  he  should  start  work 
in  the  older  trees  in  the  early  winter  and  reserve  the 
younger  trees  for  the  late  winter  and  spring  pruning. 
Some  growers  hesitate  to  prune  when  growth  is  about  to 
start  in  the  spring,  feeling  that  injury  may  result  from 
bleeding.  However,  the  writers  know  of  no  serious 
injury  resulting  from  pruning  apple  trees  at  this  time. 

Summer  pruning  has  received  much  attention  in  recent 
years  but  the  results  of  investigations  have  been  somewhat 
confusing.  Summer  pruning  may  be  practiced  to  advan- 


Pruning  and  Thinning  277 

tage  in  training  the  framework  of  a  young  tree.  It  may 
also  increase  fruit  production  if  timed  correctly.  How- 
over,  so  many  varying  factors  affect  the  time  element  that 
it  is  impossible  to  give  exact  dates  at  which  summer 
pruning  may  be  done  to  increase  fruit  production.  The 
average  grower  should  refrain  from  inaugurating  this 
practice  until  a  better  understanding  is  had  of  its  effects. 
Water-sprouts  and  a  few  superfluous  branches  may  be  re- 
moved to  advantage  during  the  summer  months. 

PRUNING  TOOLS 

The  tool  equipment  will  vary  with  the  man  and  with 
the  type  of  work.  In  the  eastern  region  practically  all 
of  the  labor  is  done  with  a  small  hand  shears  and  a  saw. 
With  these  two  tools,  a  pruner  can  do  practically  all  that 
will  be  required  in  bearing  trees  and  most  of  the  work  in 
young  trees. 

Cheap  shears  and  those  with  coil  springs  are  undesir- 
able. The  former  are  easily  sprung  and  the  latter  easily 
broken.  The  shears  should  be  7  to  9  inches  in  length, 
the  latter  usually  being  preferred. 

A  saw  on  which  the  teeth  are  set  to  cut  on  the  "  pull " 
is  less  tiring  to  the  pruner.  Saws  with  teeth  on  both 
edges  are  objectionable  since  they  frequently  injure  the 
bark.  In  some  sections  a  swivel  or  hack  saw  is  used. 
This  type  is  a  modification  of  a  butcher's  saw  equipped 
with  swivels  that  permit  very  thin,  narrow,  fine-toothed 
blades  being  set  on  the  bias.  It  cuts  rather  slowly  in  the 
case  of  large  limbs,  but  is  particularly  good  for  small  cuts 
and  for  removing  limbs  in  tight  places.  The  cuts  made 
are  clean  and  smooth. 

Pole  pruners,  6  to  10  feet  in  length,  are  useful  in  prun- 


278  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

ing  the  tops  of  trees  six  to  ten  years  old,  but  work  with  this 
tool  is  slow  and  cutting  lacks  precision. 

Lopping  or  wooden  handled  shears  are  popular  for  work 
on  young  trees  and  also  for  working  the  lower  parts  of 
old  trees.  However,  their  use  becomes  somewhat  awkward 
in  the  upper  parts  of  bearing  trees.  The  double  leverage 
type  of  "  loppers  "  is  desirable,  20  to  26  inches  being  the 
preferred  length. 

WOUND    DRESSINGS 

Some  difference  of  opinion  exists  among  growers  as  to 
the  practicability  of  the  use  of  dressings  for  protecting 
wounds.  Certain  experiments  have  shown  that  undressed 
wounds  healed  over  more  rapidly  than  dressed  ones. 
However,  for  nearly  all  wounds  paint  is  most  desirable, 
white  lead  or  white  zinc  thinned  down  with  linseed  oil 
having  given  the  best  results.  Tar  or  creosote  is  some- 
times preferred  for  large  wounds  since  these  substances 
are  considered  better  preservatives  than  paint.  The 
heartwood  of  a  large  wound  will  have  to  stand  many  years 
before  it  is  completely  healed  over. 

Wounds  in  vigorous  growing  trees  heal  over  more  read- 
ily than  those  on  trees  of  low  vitality.  The  painting 
over  of  cuts  less  than  one  inch  in  diameter  is  not  recom- 
mended. 

THINNING     • 

Although  practiced  very  extensively  in  some  parts  of 
the  country  and  particularly  in  the  West,  many  growers 
are  slow  to  adopt  thinning,  and  yet  it  is  essential  to  the 
production  of  high-class  fruit.  Once  a  grower  has  care- 
fully thinned  his  fruit  for  a  few  years,  he  needs  no  further 


Pruning  and  Thinning  279 

proof  of  the  fact  that  this  is  one  of  the  most  important 
and  profitable  of  all  orchard  operations. 

For  many  years  the  apple-growers  in  the  Wenatchee  and 
Yakima  valleys,  Washington,  have  made  thinning  a  gen- 
eral practice.  Cost  production  studies  indicate  that  the 
largest  yields  and  greatest  profits  have  been  secured  from 
well  and  carefully  thinned  orchards.  The  same  may  be 
said  for  orchards  in  all  other  parts  of  the  country  where 
this  practice  has  been  given  a  thorough  trial.  In  the 
Middle  West  and  East,  however,  the  grower  who  thins  his 
trees  is  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule.  The  cost,  to- 
gether with  a  lack  of  knowledge  and  appreciation  of  the 
great  benefits  to  be  obtained  from  thinning,  are  the  princi- 
pal reasons  which  deter  most  growers  from  following  this 
practice.  Unquestionably  it  involves  considerable  ex- 
pense, particularly  with  a  full  bearing  orchard  in  a  heavy 
crop  year.  A  heavy  outlay  of  expense  in  any  single  year 
might  be  somewhat  disappointing.  Thinning  is  an  oper- 
ation incident  to  the  production  of  high-class  fruit.  It 
should  not  be  sporadic,  but  should  be  practiced  in  every 
heavy  crop  year.  When  fairly  competent  labor  may  be 
secured  at  reasonable  rates,  it  will  be  profitable.  As  the 
competition  in  the  growing  of  high-class  apples  becomes 
greater,  thinning  will  become  more  and  more  a  general 
practice  in  every  commercial  region  in  the  country. 

In  listing  the  advantages  of  thinning  it  is  found  that  it: 
(1)  increases  size  and  quality  of  fruit;  (2)  reduces  hand- 
ling costs  such  as  for  picking  and  packing;  (3)  prevents 
overbearing  and  promotes  vigor  of  tree;  (4)  encourages 
annual  bearing;  (5)  increases  average  annual  yield;  (6) 
reduces  amount  of  cull  and  low-grade  fruit  since  inferior, 
diseased,  or  worm-eaten  apples  may  be  removed;  (7) 


280  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

secures  uniformity  of  size  and  market  quality  of  fruit; 
(8)  insures  a  high  price  for  crop. 

(1)  The  statement  that  thinning  tends  to  increase  the 
size  and  quality  of  the  remaining  fruit  will  go  unques- 
tioned.    Not  only  are  the  apples  larger,  but  the  color  of 
fruit  on  well  thinned  trees  is  noticeably  better  than  on 
overloaded  ones.     It  is  manifest  that  well  developed  speci- 
mens of  good  size  and  color  will  be  of  a  superior  quality 
and  flavor. 

(2)  By  reducing  the  number  of  apples  to  be  picked  and 
handled  at  harvest  time,  the  harvesting  costs  are  materially 
lowered.     If  apples  are  not  removed  at  thinning  time, 
they  must  be  picked  at  harvest  at  an  even  greater  expense. 
Many  of  the  culls  and  inferior  fruits  can  be  removed  in 
thinning  and  this  will  not  only  tend  to  improve  the  quality 
of  the  fruit,  but  will  reduce  the  sorting  cost  at  harvest 
time. 

(3)  If  trees  are  left  overloaded,  their  vitality  is  im- 
paired; branches  are  quite  likely  broken;  and  the  pros- 
pects for  the  next  year's  crop  are  very  much  poorer  than 
if  the  tree  had  been  properly  thinned.     It  is  difficult  to 
measure  the  exact  value  of  thinning  as  affecting  annual 
yields  and  yet  it  is  a  notable  fact  that  thinning  unques- 
tionably stimulates  annual  bearing.     Many  well  thinned 
orchards  in  the  Northwest  bear  heavy  crops  annually  while 
most  unthinned  orchards  tend  to  bear  biennially. 

(4)  To  claim  that  thinning  reduces   the  tax  on   the 
vitality  of  the  tree  and  yet  maintain  that  it  actually  in- 
creases yield  may  seem  contradictory.     Unquestionably  it 
increases  average  annual  yield  and  it  is  a  fact  that  in- 
creased  size  in  fruit  usually  more   than  makes  up  for 


Pruning  and  Thinning  281 

reduced  numbers.     Furthermore,  by  more  even  distribu- 
tion the  tree  may  better  hold  its  load. 

(5)  It  is  possible  in  thinning  to  remove  wormy,  stung, 
diseased  or  otherwise  inferior  fruits  and  in  this  manner 
greatly  reduce  the  percentage  of  cull  fruit  and  in  some 
ways  check  the  spread  of  the  injury. 

(6)  Uniformity  is  one  of  the  most  desirable  qualities 
in  marketable  apples.     Thinning,  of  all  orchard  opera- 
tions, is  the  one  which  directly  influences  uniformity  in 
size  and  marketable  quality  of  fruit. 

(7)  When  the  grower  is  striving  for  an  abundance  of 
highest  quality  fruit,  thinning  unquestionably  pays.     It 
increases  the  percentage  of  high-grade  fruit  and  thus  in- 
sures a  higher  net  price.     Cost  of  production  a  bushel  will 
be  lowered  even  though  cost  an  acre  may  be  increased.     If 
a  grower  has  expended  heavily  for  spraying,  pruning  and 
other  operations,  he  can  not  afford  to  neglect  thinning  in 
years  when  his  trees  tend  to  overbear. 

Time  and  method  of  thinning. 

Thinning  should  not  be  undertaken  until  after  the  June 
or  May  drop,  as  in  some  of  the  more  southern  regions,  has 
occurred.  When  the  apples  are  about  the  size  of  walnuts, 
the  natural  thinning  of  the  fruit  has  largely  ceased  and 
artificial  thinning  may  be  begun  profitably. 

Often  many  growers  have  a  market  for  early  cull  fruit 
or  sell  it  for  by-product  purposes.  In  such  instances 
thinning  may  be  delayed  until  perhaps  August,  at  which 
time  the  cull  or  inferior  fruit  may  easily  be  picked  off. 
Still  other  growers  thin  their  apples  by  making  several 
pickings  for  commercial  purposes,  picking  off  the  best 


282  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

and  most  matured  apples  for  market  and  allowing  the 
others  to  remain.  Such  practices  can  hardly  be  classed 
under  the  head  of  thinning,  although  they  may  be  profit- 
able in  some  instances  and  may  be  practiced  in  addition  to 
early  thinning. 

The  common  practice  in  thinning  is  to  start  early  after 
the  June  drop  and  pull  or  clip  off  all  apples  according  to 
varying  rules  of  spacing.  Some  growers  leave  the  apples 
at  a  minimum  of  4  inches  apart,  others  6  inches  and  still 
others  8  inches  apart.  This  distance  will  depend  largely 
on  the  variety,  its  tendency  to  cluster,  and  whether  or  not 
the  apples  of  the  variety  are  normally  large  or  small  when 
mature.  Generally  speaking,  spacing  6  inches  is  a  safe 
rule  to  follow. 

Many  varieties  of  apples  have  a  tendency  to  produce 
their  fruit  in  clusters  and  often  thinning  the  cluster  to 
one  apple  is  practically  all  that  is  necessary.  In  any  case, 
if  systematic  -thinning  can  not  be  practiced,  the  clusters 
should  at  least  be  thinned  as  this  prevents  much  insect 
injury  and  promotes  general  uniformity  of  the  fruit.  The 
amount  of  thinning  will  depend  on  the  individual  tree, 
the  variety  and  the  amount  of  fruit  on  the  tree.  No  def- 
inite formula  may  be  laid  down.  The  usual  method  of 
thinning  apples  is  to  pick  the  fruit  off  by  hand,  sometimes 
putting  it  into  a  bag,  but  usually  permitting  it  to  drop  on 
the  ground.  Many  growers,  particularly  in  the  North- 
west, prefer  thinning  shears,  of  which  several  types  are 
on  the  market.  The  advantage  to  be  gained  in  using  thin- 
ning shears  is  that  the  apples  are  clipped  instead  of  pulled 
off  and  for  this  reason  fruit-spurs  are  not  likely  to  be 
broken  or  damaged. 


Pruning  and  Thinning  283 

Cost  of  thinning. 

The  cost  of  thinning  will  depend  on  several  factors,  such 
as  the  variety,  size  of  tree,  kind  of  labor  employed,  method 
used,  size  of  the  crop  and  the  vigor  of  the  tree.  The 
average  man  thins  from  three  to  twenty  trees  a  day.  In 
the  Northwest  one  hour  to  a  tree  is  considered  an  average 
amount.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  the 
Northwest  trees  are  much  smaller  and  the  fruit  easier  of 
access  than  in  the  older  orchards  of  the  East  and  Central 
West.  In  old  orchards,  heavy  with  fruit,  from  three  to 
five  trees  is  a  day's  work.  It  would  not  do  to  figure  aver- 
ages on  this  basis  as  often  many  trees  do  not  need  much 
thinning.  It  requires  about  sixty  hours  an  acre  to  thin 
the  better  Wenatchee  orchards.  Very  little  thinning  is 
done  in  New  York  and  Virginia,  but  if  the  trees  in  these 
regions  were  thinned  as  systematically  as  in  Wenatchee, 
the  amount  of  labor  expended  would  be  about  the  same  to 
the  acre  despite  fewer  trees.  The  average  grower  is  safe 
in  assuming  that  it  will  pay  him  to  spend  on  thinning  an 
amount  equal  to  twenty-five  cents  a  barrel  for  every  barrel 
of  fruit  produced.  The  operation  usually  costs  less  than 
this  amount. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
RENOVATION  OF  OLD  ORCHARDS 

THROUGHOUT  the  country  and  particularly  in  the  east- 
ern and  central  western  states  are  many  thousands  of 
apple  trees  which  at  present  have  little  or  no  commercial 
significance.  Many  of  these  are  in  the  old  farm  orchards, 
the  average  of  which  includes  at  most  but  a  few  acres  of 
poorly  kept  and  very  often  neglected  apple  trees.  There 
are,  however,  a  great  many  orchards  originally  set  out  for 
commercial  purposes  and  later  neglected.  It  is  to  this 
latter  acreage  that  the  discussion  on  renovation  will  partic- 
ularly apply. 

Greatest  possibilities  for  renovation  are  offered  in  Ohio^ 
Pennsylvania,  and  the  northeastern  states,  also  in  many 
sections  of  the  Middle  West.  In  southern  states  the  old 
neglected  orchards  are  for  the  most  part  of  such  small 
size  and  are  so  inaccessible  as  to  offer  slight  inducement 
for  successful  renovation.  The  problem  of  renovation  re- 
quires exceptionally  careful  study  if  one  is  contemplating 
this  method  of  entering  the  business  of  growing  apples 
commercially.  In  recent  years  many  far-sighted  individ- 
uals have  been  able  to  purchase  neglected  apple  orchards 
and  by  renovation  make  much  quicker  returns  on  the 
money  invested  than  would  have  been  possible  had  a 
young  orchard  been  set  out  and  the  owner  waited  for  the 
latter  to  come  into  bearing.  Such  opportunities  still  ex- 

284 


Renovation  of  Old  Orchards  285 

ist.  It  is  somewhat  surprising  in  visiting  well-known 
commercial  regions  to  see  a  large  number  of  orchards  which 
receive  little  or  no  care,  yet  which  under  proper  manage- 
ment could  be  made  to  yield  a  profit.  The  above  state- 
ment is  not  to  convey  the  idea  that  it  is  profitable  to  at- 
tempt the  reclamation  of  all  old  farm  orchards  by  the 
process  of  renovation.  Very  many  trees  are  beyond  the 
period  when  they  may  be  reclaimed  profitably. 

It  requires  considerable  experience  and  nicety  of  judg- 
ment to  determine  what  orchards  may  or  may  not  be  suc- 
cessfully renovated.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  essential  that 
the  orchard  should  be  large  enough  to  meet  the  expense  of 
proper  equipment  such  as  the  spray-pump,  and  to  warrant 
some  detailed  attention  from  the  owner.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  an  orchard  of  less  than  five  acres,  or  one  in  which 
many  trees  are  missing,  can  ever  be  renovated  successfully 
and  put  on  a  profitable  commercial  basis.  Smaller  or- 
chards, of  course,  might  well  be  restored  for  home  use. 

Commercial  orchards  to  be  renovated  should  include 
varieties  for  which  there  is  a  demand.  Plantings  should 
be  accessible  to  market  and  labor.  However,  one  might 
profitably  restore  an  old  orchard  in  a  locality  in  which  it 
would  scarcely  be  advisable  to  set  new  plantings.  An 
established  orchard  always  enjoys  an  important  advantage 
from  being  already  in  bearing. 

The  following  suggestions  are  offered  with  regard  to  the 
process  of  renovating  an  old  orchard  and  apply  as  much 
to  the  home  orchard  as  to  commercial  plantings : 

General  treatment. 

All  dead  wood  and  cankers  should  be  cut  out  and  the 
trunk  of  tree  thoroughly  scraped  with  a  hoe  or  similar 


286  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

tool,  being  careful  not  to  injure  the  tender  inner  bark. 
This  scraping  removes  the  hiding  places  for  many  orchard 
pests.  After  scraping,  some  advise  that  the  trunks  should 
be  whitewashed.  Unquestionably  such  treatment  would  be 
beneficial,  although  it  it  not  recommended  as  necessary. 

In  cutting  large  limbs,  it  is  best  to  make  two  cuts,  the 
first  about  a  foot  above  the  last  in  order  to  prevent  split- 
ting or  otherwise  injuring  the  good  wood  below  the  final 
cut. 

It  is  well  to  disinfect  large  wounds  with  copper  sulfate 
or  corrosive  sublimate,  after  which  a  coat  of  asphaltum  tree 
paint  or  white  lead  is  advisable  to  protect  the  tree  against 
decay  and  from  the  ravages  of  insects  and  diseases.  When 
small  limbs  and  twigs  are  being  headed,  one  should  cut  to 
a  lateral  growth,  otherwise  the  remaining  stub  dies  and 
decay  follows. 

The  chances  are  that  in  old  neglected  orchards  many 
holes  will  be  found  in  the  trunks  of  the  trees  where  limbs 
have  been  broken  or  cut  off  in  years  gone  by,  where  decay 
has  set  in.  Very  often  trees  may  be  saved  if  the  decayed 
wood  is  thoroughly  cleaned  out.  Occasionally  such  cavi- 
ties are  filled  with  cement,  care  being  taken  that  all  water 
and  wet  wood  is  removed  first.  As  a  general  rule,  such 
treatment  is  not  practicable. 

Pruning. 

In  shaping  or  pruning  a  tree  after  the  dead  wood  has 
been  removed,  a  number  of  precautions  should  be  borne  in 
mind. 

A  common  mistake  in  renovation  is  to  sacrifice  much  of 
the  fruiting  area  by  removal  of  a  large  part  of  the  top 
with  a  view  to  bringing  the  head  closer  to  the  ground. 


Renovation  of  Old  Orchards  287 

It  takes  several  years  to  develop  fruiting  wood  and  it  may 
be  advisable  to  thin  out  rather  than  remove  the  already  ex- 
isting fruiting  wood. 

Very  often,  however,  because  of  excessively  high  trees, 
severe  cutting  back  and  thinning  out  of  the  remaining  tops 
is  necessary.  Even  in  such  instances  it  is  unwise  to  re- 
move too  large  a  portion  of  the  fruiting  wood,  even  though 
such  wood  may  be  found,  as  it  very  often  is,  at  the  tips  of 
the  larger  branches.  The  orchardist  should  encourage 
lateral  growth,  but  should  avoid  the  sacrifice  of  too  great  a 
part  of  the  fruiting  area.  It  is  usually  advisable  to  dis- 
tribute the  heavy  pruning  over  a  period  of  several  years  in 
order  to  preserve  the  balance  between  the  roots  and  the 
top,  and  to  prevent  sun-scald  on  the  larger  limbs  through 
exposure  to  direct  sunlight. 

It  is  important  that  the  outer  parts  and  tops  of  all 
trees  should  be>  well  thinned  by  working  from  the  top 
and  tips  of  the  branches  downward.  This  provides  for 
penetration  of  sunlight  and  allows  distribution  of  fruiting 
wood  throughout  the  entire  tree.  It  is  common  to  see  a 
grower  start  with  the  lower  trunk  limbs  and  prune  severely 
as  far  as  he  can  reach  conveniently,  leaving  the  outer  part 
of  the  limbs  to  bear  all  the  fruit.  Ladders  are  almost  in- 
dispensable in  thinning  and  heading  back  the  tops. 

Each  limb  should  be  treated  somewhat  as  a  separate  tree. 
Laterals  should  be  thinned  out  and  the  remaining  ones 
spaced  as  on  the  trunk,  special  effort  being  made  to  bring 
fruiting  area  nearer  the .  ground.  By  thinning  out  the 
brushy  tops,  water-sprouts  may  be  encouraged  farther 
down  on  the  main  limbs.  The  following  year  the  water- 
sprouts  should  be  thinned  out  to  a  distance  of  18  to  24 
inches  apart  and  cut  back  severely  so  that  they  will  throw 


288  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

out  laterals  and  eventually  lower  the  fruiting  area.  In 
pruning  water-sprouts,  the  leader  should  be  cut  slightly 
less  than  its  laterals,  a  safe  proportion  being  to  cut  the 
leader  35  per  cent  and  the  laterals  about  50  per  cent. 

Although  it  is  advisable  to  distribute  the  heavy  prun- 
ing over  a  period  of  three  years,  the  orchardist  should 
bear  in  mind  that  the  heavy  cutting  of  one  main  branch 
does  not  necessarily  produce  the  vigor  necessary  for  fruit- 
ing on  the  remaining  limbs.  If  one  branch  is  pruned 
heavily,  the  water-sprouts  will  come  on  that  particular 
limb  and  not  on  the  others.  Therefore,  a  general  mod- 
erate pruning  throughout  the  top,  with  careful  attention 
given  to  thinning  out  the  smaller  fruiting  wood,  will  serve 
to  encourage  fruiting  generally  throughout  the  tree  and  to 
afford  an  opportunity  for  converting  water-sprouts  into 
new  fruiting  wood  in  the  lower  part  of  the  tree.  System- 
atic pruning  must  be  followed  for  a  period  of  several  years 
if  renovation  is  to  be  made  effective. 

Spraying. 

After  pruning  the  next  step  in  renovation  is  thorough 
spraying.  Old  trees  are  nearly  always  badly  infested 
with  scale  as  well  as  with  other  insects  and  diseases.  A 
thorough  application  of  lime-sulfur  is  a  necessary  clean-up 
measure.  After  the  dormant  winter  spray,  the  same  regu- 
lar spray  program  should  be  followed  as  is  necessary  in 
commercial  orchards  of  the  region.  It  is  particularly  im- 
portant in  the  case  of  old  trees  to  have  a  tower  on  the 
spray  rig  in  order  that  the  spray  will  reach  the  topmost 
branches.  The  importance  of  spraying  can  not  be  em- 
phasized too  strongly  as  essential  to  the  proper  renova- 
tion of  the  orchard.  (See  Chapter  X.) 


Renovation  of  Old  Orchards  289 

Soil  management. 

Thorough  cultivation  is  usually  the  first  step  in  reno- 
vation, although  in  come  instances  deep  plowing  may  re- 
sult in  cutting  off  many  of  the  feeding  roots,  especially 
when  an  orchard  has  been  in  sod  for  some  time  and  the 
roots  feed  close  to  the  surface.  If  the  roots  are  too 
greatly  disturbed,  the  trees  may  be  seriously  weakened. 
Thorough  discing  when  possible  is  always  safe  and  satis- 
factory. Plowing  is  to  be  preferred  if  it  can  be  done 
without  destroying  too  many  of  the  roots.  Early  culti- 
vation is  best  and  should  be  performed  as  soon  in  the 
spring  as  possible.  After  thoroughly  working  the  soil,  it 
is  very  often  advisable  to  sow  a  leguminous  cover-crop 
in  order  to  supply  humus  and  nitrogen  when  these  two 
essentials  have  become  depleted. 

In  many  instances  inter-crops  have  been  continuously 
grown  in  old  orchards  with  the  result  that  the  soil  is  de- 
cidedly lacking  in  one  or  more  elements  of  plant-food. 
When  available,  liberal  applications  of  barnyard  manure, 
from  10  to  18  tons  to  the  acre,  will  aid  in  restoring  soil 
fertility.  When  the  soil  seems  generally  weak  and  de- 
ficient, an  application  of  complete  commercial  fertilizer, 
consisting  of  6  pounds  nitrate  of  soda,  8  pounds  acid 
phosphate  and  3  pounds  muriate  of  potash  to  a  tree,  may 
be  considered  a  very  liberal  treatment.  Fertilizer  ex- 
periments emphasize  the  efficiency  of  nitrate  of  soda  used 
alone.  A  5-pound  application  of  nitrate  of  soda  will  be 
generally  profitable  on  weak  trees.  When  commercial 
fertilizer  is  applied  in  conjunction  with  manure,  the  above 
amounts  to  a  tree  may  be  cut  to  about  half. 

In  summarizing,  the  three  important  steps  in  orchard 


290  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

renovation  are:  (1)  careful  pruning;  (2)  thorough  spray 
ing;  (3)  thorough  working  of  the  soil  with  the  possibli 
addition  of  commercial  fertilizer. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
HANDLING  THE  CROP 

THE  handling  of  the  crop  includes  the  operations  from 
the  time  the  fruit  is  ripe  until  it  is  put  on  the  market. 
Special  care  is  necessary  in  picking  and  packing  in  order 
that  the  apples  may  reach  the  market  in  good  condition. 

PICKING  (PLATE  xvin) 

The  time  of  picking  varies  greatly  with  the  variety  and 
with  the  season.  Other  influences,  such  as  age  of  trees  and 
cultural  practices,  may  also  affect  the  time  of  this  opera- 
tion. It  is  generally  thought  that  fruit  comes  to  maturity 
earlier  on  older  trees  than  on  young  ones ;  also  that  apples 
grown  on  sod  land  should  be  picked  sooner  than  those  in 
cultivated  orchards.  As  a  rule,  over-maturity  is  to  be 
feared  more  than  immaturity,  although  both  conditions 
may  be  disastrous.  Maturity  in  most  instances  means 
hard  ripe  and  not  eating  ripe.  Since  the  time  of  picking 
has  so  much  to  do  with  the  keeping  qualities  of  the  fruit, 
it  is  important  that  the  ripening  tendencies  of  each  variety 
be  studied  in  every  particular  locality.  The  following 
points  should  be  taken  into  consideration  in  order  to  de- 
termine the  correct  picking  time  for  different  varieties  of 
apples :  1.  The  ease  with  which  the  fruit  separates  from 
the  spur;  2.  the  red  color;  3.  size;  4.  color  of  seeds;  5. 
tendencies  of  certain  varieties  to  drop. 
291 


292  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

1.  One  of  the  most  valuable  guides  in  determining  the 
time  of  picking  is  the  ease  with  which  the  apple  separates 
from  the  spur.     Much  damage  can  be  done  if  the  apples 
are  picked  too  soon,  for  in  such  circumstances  the  picker 
will    probably    destroy    or   break    off   many    fruit-spurs. 
The  grower  must  sacrifice  size  if  the  fruit  separates  readily 
from  the  spur,  otherwise  he  may  suffer  from  heavy  drop- 
ping or  over-maturity  of  the  fruit. 

2.  In  most  cases,  the  amount  of  color  is  the  grower's 
guide  in  determining  time  of  picking.     In  this  connection 
it  should  be  remembered  that  in  bright  seasons  the  apples 
have  a  tendency  to  color  early  and  for  that  reason  there  is 
the  danger  of  picking  too  soon.     In  damp  cloudy  weather, 
coloring  may  be  checked  and  under  such  conditions  there 
is  danger  of  waiting  too  long  before  harvesting.     Very 
often  two  pickings  are  advisable  for  such  highly  colored 
varieties  as  Winesaps.     If  the  better  colored  specimens 
are  harvested  in  the  first  picking,  the  remaining  poorly 
colored  apples  will  benefit  by  greater  exposure  to  the  sun- 
light.    It  must  be  remembered  that  an  added  picking  rep- 
resents a  considerable  expense  warranted  only  in  the  case 
of  high  quality  crops,  when  the  added  color  and  size  mean 
a  considerable  increased  price  for  the  product.     Investi- 
gations l  have  revealed  that  in  the  case  of  red  apples  the 
ground  color  which  underlies  the  red  color  or  blush  is  the 
most  reliable  indication  of  maturity.     In  immature  fruits 
this  color  is  green.     Before  the  apples  are  ready  to  pick, 
the  ground  color  should  have  turned  to  a  white  or  very 
light  yellow.     The   dark   yellow   ground   color  indicates 
over-maturity.     The  very  common  mistake  of  leaving  such 

i  Bull.  587,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr, 


PLATE  XVIII. —  Showing  method  of  picking  practiced  in  Vir- 
ginia, particularly  in  the  Piedmont  section  where  a  crew  of  pickers 
will  commonly  pick  from  a  single  tree.  An  inefficient  method. 


Handling  the  Crop  293 

varieties  as  Jonathan  and  Esopus  too  long  on  the  trees 
results  in  a  much  shortened  life  for  the  fruit  in  storage. 

3.  For  green   varieties    and    particularly    early   green 
apples,  size  is  an  important  factor.     The  grower  should 
not  wait  for  the  yellow  ground  color,  otherwise  he  will  lose 
through  over-maturity  of  his  fruit.     If  two  pickings  are 
made,  it  will  be  found  that  the  apples  left  on  the  tree 
will  quickly  benefit  in  size  by  the  removal  of  a  portion  of 
the  crop.     It  must  be  considered  that  size  will  vary  accord- 
ing to  crop,  age  of  trees,  and  season,  so  that  no  definite 
idea  of  the  proper  size  at  which  to  pick  can  be  given. 

4.  It  has  been  recommended  that  apples  should  not  be 
picked  until  the   seeds  have  turned  brown.     While  the 
color  of  the  seeds  may  be  taken  as  an  indication  of  matu- 
rity, it  should  not  be  considered  as  always  reliable.     The 
seeds  should  always  be  brown  before  the  apples  are  picked, 
but  the  brown  color  of  the  seeds  does  not  necessarily  indi- 
cate maturity.     In  other  words,  immature  fruit  may  have 
brown  seeds. 

5.  Such  varieties  as  Mclntosh,  Wagener,  and   Tomp- 
kins  King  tend  to  drop  before  maturity,  and  Stayman, 
Wealthy  and  Grimes  to  drop  badly  with  the  wind.     The 
grower  should  watch  these  tendencies  and  should  regard 
heavy  dropping  as  an  indication  of  need  for  immediate 
picking. 

No  other  operation  in  the  physical  handling  is  more 
essential  to  the  life  of  the  fruit  than  careful  picking. 
The  pickers  should  be  impressed  with  the  importance  of 
preventing  bruises,  punctures  or  abrasions  of  the  skin, 
since  such  injuries  permit  the  entrance  of  serious  storage 
decay.  The  fungi  which  cause  most  of  the  storage  decay 
can  not  injure  sound  fruit.  Careless  picking  hands  may 


294  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

pull  off  the  fruit-spurs  and  seriously  injure  the  tree  in 
climbing  about  or  in  carelessly  manipulating  the  ladders. 
Delays  in  picking  and  also  delay  before  storage  often  in- 
volve heavy  loss.  After  the  fruit  has  been  picked,  it 
should  be  put  in  storage  as  soon  as  possible.  Two  or 
three  days'  exposure  to  warm  sun  in  the  orchard  after  pick- 
ing will  cause  the  apples  to  ripen  rapidly  and  the  life  of 
the  fruit  will  be  materially  shortened.  Immediately 
stored  fruit  is  always  brighter  and  firmer  than  that  which 
is  left  in  the  orchard  for  several  days  after  picking. 

Contract  picking  versus  day  labor. 

In  connection  with  the  operation  of  picking,  it  is  im- 
portant to  consider  the  contract  system  as  compared  with 
day  labor  from  the  standpoint  of  efficiency  and  economy. 
The  principal  objection  to  contract  labor  in  picking  is  the 
danger  of  careless  handling  of  fruit  when  the  picker  tends 
to  sacrifice  carefulness  for  speed.  Most  growers  have 
avoided  contract  picking,  although  the  practice  is  gaining 
somewhat  in  popularity  in  some  regions,  particularly 
where  labor  is  scarce.  Cost  production  studies  have  re- 
vealed that  the  contract  picker  working  by  the  piece  will 
pick  on  the  average  of  at  least  25  per  cent  more  apples  in  a 
day  than  will  the  day  laborer.  If  competent  labor  can 
be  secured  and  carefully  overseen,  contract  picking  may 
offer  an  opportunity  for  speed  and  considerable  saving  in 
handling  the  crop. 

Picking  utensils. 

Various  types  of  picking  utensils  are  in  use  and  each 
has  its  advantages  and  disadvantages.  The  canvas  bag, 
suspended  by  straps  from  the  shoulder  and  opening  at 


Handling  the  Crop  295 

the  bottom  so  that  the  apples  may  be  rolled  out  into  a 
box  or  barrel,  has  become  the  most  popular  picking  utensil 
in  the  Northwest.  Some  criticism  is  voiced  against  the 
picking-bag  on  account  of  the  danger  of  bruising  the  fruit. 
When  the  picker  is  climbing  about  on  ladders,  apples  in  a 
bag  may  be  knocked  against  the  ladder  or  subjected  to 
more  shaking  or  rolling  about  than  if  placed  in  pails. 
The  chief  advantage  of  the  picking-bag  is  that  it  leaves 
both  of  the  picker's  hands  free  for  picking. 

A  pail  with  a  canvas  bottom  which  may  be  opened  in 
emptying  possesses  some  of  the  advantages  of  the  bag  and 
may  afford  better  protection  for  the  fruit.  The  round 
half-bushel  basket  is  a  very  popular  picking  utensil 
throughout  the  East  and  Middle  West.  Its  value  may  be 
enhanced  by  lining  the  sides  with  corrugated  paper  or 
padding  the  bottom  to  prevent  bruising  the  fruit.  Wire 
hooks  on  the  handles  of  pails  or  baskets  will  aid  in  the 
hanging  of  these  utensils  on  the  ladder  or  tree. 

If  the  picker  is  obliged  to  walk  a  considerable  distance 
to  a  sorting-table,  as  is  the  case  where  fruit  is  packed  in 
the  orchard,  a  pail  or  basket  is  sometimes  preferred  to  the 
picking-bag,  for  in  such  instances  the  receptacles  are  filled 
and  left  at  the  bottom  of  the  tree  to  be  carried  later  to  the 
packing-table.  A  waiter  should  be  employed  to  carry  the 
fruit  from  the  base  of  the  tree  to  the  orchard  sorting-table, 
since  this  workman  will  carry  two  or  more  baskets  whereas 
the  picker  will  make  the  return  trip  with  only  one.  Where 
the  crop  is  handled  through  the  packing-house,  receptacles 
for  the  picked  fruit  should  be  distributed  throughout  the 
orchard  in  order  that  the  picker  will  not  lose  time  in 
emptying  his  bag  or  pail  of  fruit.  In  all  cases,  the  picker 
should  be  warned  against  allowing  the  fruit  to  drop  into  the 


296 


The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 


box  or  onto  the  table  with 
sufficient  force  to  cause  se- 
vere bruising.  A  low  or- 
chard wagon  with  springs 
is  recommended  for  haul- 
ing receptacles  of  loose 
fruit.  (See  Fig.  9.) 

The  pointed  ladder  is 
the  most  efficient  type  for 
picking  in  among  the 

FIG.  9.- Slatted  crate  used  very    branches   since   it   can   be 
generally  in  the  eastern  states  for     placed    against    a    fork    or 

pS^f9  fr°m  °rChard  to   Hmb  without  injuring  the 

tree.     Step-ladders  with  a 

single  prop  are  useful  in  picking  from  the  outside  limbs 
or  from  small  trees. 

PACKING  (PLATE  xrx) 

Since  there  are  two  somewhat  divergent  systems  for 
grading  and  packing  the  barreled  and  boxed  apples,  the 
two  general  methods  will  be  discussed  separately. 
Throughout  the  East  and  Middle  West,  much  of  the  pack- 
ing is  done  in  the  orchard  although  sheds  are  increasing 
in  number  and  popularity  in  nearly  every  commercial  ap- 
ple region.  Western  growers  early  showed  a  preference 
for  the  packing-house,  since  very  exacting  labor  and  good 
equipment  are  required  in  maintaining  the  high  standard 
of  the  boxed  pack. 

Sorting  and  packing  barreled  apples 

Until  recently  most  of  the  barreled  apple  crop  was 
packed  in  the  orchard  with  the  aid  of  portable  packing 


Handling  the  Crop  297 

equipment.  The  packing-shed  is  growing  in  popularity 
throughout  the  East  and  Middle  West,  but  many  commer- 
cial apple-growers  still  pack  out  their  crop  in  the  orchard, 
and  this  operation,  therefore,  must  be  given  separate  treat- 
ment. 

Orchard  packing. 

When  sorting  and  packing  is  done  in  the  orchard,  the 
equipment  usually  consists  of  either  a  portable  slatted 
table  or  a  canvas  or  burlap-top  table. 

Of  the  above  two  types,  the  slatted  table  is  most  com- 
monly used.  Very  often  these  tables  are  equipped  with 
wheels  in  order  that  they  may  be  moved  about  easily  in 
the  orchard.  The  top  of  the  average  slatted  sorting- 
table  tapers  from  three  to  four  feet  at  one  end  to  one  to 
two  feet  in  width  at  the  other  end.  The  table  also  slopes 
so  that  when  the  fruit  is  poured  on  at  the  wide  end,  it  rolls 
down  past  the  sorters  to  the  narrow  end,  and  there  is 
lowered  into  the  barrel  by  means  of  an  apron.  The  upper 
end  of  the  table  top  should  be  padded  heavily  to  prevent 
bruising  of  the  fruit.  Leaves  and  brush  drop  to  the  ground 
as  the  apples  roll  down  over  the  slatted  top.  Sorters 
stand  at  the  side  of  the  table,  and  when  only  one  grade 
is  being  packed  out,  as  is  usually  the  case,  they  remove 
only  the  culls  and  rots.  When  two  grades  are  being 
packed,  the  additional  grade  is  picked  out  as  the  fruit 
passes  over  the  table,  and  is  placed  in  barrels  alongside 
the  sorter.  The  packer  stands  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
table  and  feeds  the  apples  into  previously  faced  barrels,  at 
the  same  time  assuming  part  of  the  responsibility  for  the 
grade. 

The  slatted  sorting-table  is  an  example  of  cheap  portable 


298  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

equipment,  but  in  its  use  there  is  danger  that  inferior 
fruit  will  crowd  past  the  sorter.  Although  the  slatted 
table  is  widely  employed  throughout  the  East  and  Middle 
West,  it  seems  probable  that  its  place  will  be  taken  more 
and  more  by  the  mechanical  sizer  or  burlap-top  table. 

Some  barrel  apple-growers,  and  particularly  those  in- 
terested in  a  more  careful  pack,  employ  the  canvas  or 
burlap-top  table,  which  is  usually  about  three  feet  high, 
three  feet  wide  and  six  or  eight  feet  long.  The  apples  are 
emptied  directly  from  the  tree  onto  the  top  of  the  table. 
Sorters  then  grade  out  the  fruit,  usually  placing  it  in 
baskets  or  receptacles  according  to  its  grade.  Under  this 
system,  two  grades  are  ordinarily  packed  out,  the  culls 
being  thrown  to  one  side  in  a  pile  or  placed  in  separate 
barrels.  The  packer  stands  behind  the  sorter  and  fills 
previously  faced  barrels  with  the  fruit  according  to  its 
grade. 

The  use  of  canvas  or  burlap-top  table  facilitates  more 
careful  handling  and  sorting  than  the  slatted-top  table. 
In  the  case  of  either,  the  picker  usually  carries  his  own 
fruit  directly  to  the  table,  although  in  some  instances  the 
work  of  transferring  fruit  from  the  base  of  the  tree  to 
the  packing-table  is  done  by  additional  workmen.  As 
previously  pointed  out,  the  latter  system  is  more  efficient. 

Before  discussing  packing-house  equipment,  it  should 
be  mentioned  that  portable  sizing  machines  have  been 
used  to  some  extent  in  orchard  packing. 

Packing-houses  for  barreled  apples. 

While  orchard  packing  still  predominates,  the  rapidly 
increasing  number  of  packing-houses  throughout  the  bar- 
rel apple  states  is  a  distinct  sign  of  progress.  Some  ad- 


Handling  the  Crop  299 

vantages  of  a  packing-house  are:  (1)  Centralization  of 
packing  operations,  no  time  being  lost  in  moving  equip- 
ment about  the  orchard;  (2)  packing  may  continue  unin- 
terrupted during  inclement  weather;  (3)  improved  sizers 
and  other  labor-saving  devices  may  be  installed  econom- 
ically; (4)  packages  for  the  fruit  are  kept  cleaner  than  if 
handled  in  the  orchard. 

The  eastern  apple-grower  has  come  to  rely  on  cold 
storage  rather  than  common  storage  in  holding  his  crop 
for  any  length  of  time.  For  this  reason,  common  storage 
in  connection  with  packing  plants  is  not  recognized  as 
such  an  important  feature  as  in  the  West.  The  grower 
either  sells  his  winter  apples  immediately  or  places  them 
in  cold  storage.  Therefore,  the  packing-shed  in  the  bar- 
reled apple  industry  assumes  more  the  nature  of  a  shelter 
for  centralized  packing  operations. 

Eastern  and  middle  western  apple  packing-houses  might 
arbitrarily  be  classified  in  three  groups:  (1)  Those  pro- 
viding a  mere  shelter  for  either  the  inclined  slatted-top  or 
canvas-top  sorting-tables;  (2)  those  which  not  only  pro- 
vide shelter  for  the  packing  operation,  but  which  have  a 
small  sizing  machine  and  possibly  certain  other  labor-sav- 
ing devices;  (3)  the  large  improved  packing-shed  with  a 
daily  capacity  of  300  to  1,200  barrels  of  apples. 

In  the  third  class  are  the  larger  and  best  equipped 
mechanical  sizers,  fitted  with  conveyer  belts,  improved 
bins  and  other  equipment  calculated  to  insure  the  greatest 
speed  and  efficiency  in  handling  the  crop.  With  such 
packing-houses,  the  fruit  is  usually  delivered  from  the 
orchard  on  to  a  receiving  platform  or  possibly  directly  on 
to  a  receiving  belt  which  carries  it  past  the  sorters  and 
delivers  it  directly  into  the  sizing  mechanism.  The 


300  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

sorters  stand  beside  the  conveyer  and  grade  out  the  fruit 
as  it  passes  them.  More  improved  sizers  permit  the  grad- 
ing and  sizing  of  two  and  even  three  grades  simultaneously. 
The  sorting  is  accomplished  by  dividing  the  grading  belt 
lengthwise  with  strips  which  serve  as  partitions  to  separate 
the  different  grades.  A  separate  set  of  bins  is  then  re- 
quired for  each  grade. 

The  machines  now  most  commonly  used  throughout 
the  East  size  but  a  single  grade,  the  fruit  being  sorted  ac- 
cording to  one  of  the  following  two  practices:  (a)  Only 
culls  and  rots  are  removed,  the  remainder  being  allowed 
to  go  into  a  single  grade,  in  which  case  the  smaller  sizes 
are  packed  out  as  No.  2's  and  the  larger  sizes,  usually 
from  2~y2  inches  up,  are  called  No.  1 ;  or  (b)  not  only  are 
culls  removed  but  also  a  second  grade  based  on  quality, 
the  latter  being  diverted  into  a  single  bin  without  sizing. 
The  first  grade  then  proceeds  along  the  conveyer  belt  to 
the  sizing  mechanism,  the  apples  being  delivered  in  bins 
according  to  their  respective  sizes. 

The  growing  tendency  in  the  largest  barreled  apple  dis- 
tricts where  careful  grading  is  practiced,  is  to  size  the 
first  grade 'to  quarter  inch  sizes.  This  makes  a  more  at- 
tractive pack  than  one  in  which  all  sizes  above  a  stated 
minimum  are  packed  into  the  same  barrel.  In  addition 
to  the  advantage  of  increased  attractiveness  of  pack,  the 
more  exact  sizing  makes  possible  the  handling  of  the  fruit 
through  more  bins,  and  in  this  way  eliminates  congestion 
in  any  one  bin.  However,  unless  the  volume  of  fruit 
handled  is  great  enough  to  keep  several  packers  busy  when 
the  apples  are  distributed  among  three  or  four  bins,  it  is 
not  advisable  to  attempt  such  exact  sizing. 

In  any  of  the  above  practices,  the  fruit  is  taken  out  of 


Handling  the  Crop  301 

its  respective  bin  and  placed  in  previously  faced  barrels. 
An  additional  workman  then  nails  and  stamps  the  barrel 
and  places  it  in  a  position  ready  to  be  loaded  on  the  cars 
or  hauled  to  the  shipping  station. 

Some  desirable  features  for  the  packing-shed  under  east- 
ern and  middle  western  conditions  may  be  summed  up  as 
follows:  (1)  It  is  highly  desirable  that  the  packing- 
shed  should  be  convenient  to  a  railroad  loading  station. 
In  the  case  of  community  packing-sheds,  it  is  always  es- 
sential that  a  site  be  selected  where  the  fruit  may  be 
loaded  immediately  on  cars.  In  such  cases,  the  roof 
should  slope  to  the  back  to  permit  of  later  additions  to 
the  building.  (2)  Storage  space  should  be  provided  for 
empty  barrels.  This  may  be  done  conveniently  by  pro- 
viding a  loft  overhead  with  chutes  for  delivering  the  bar- 
rels to  the  packing-table.  (3)  It  is  highly  important  that 
attention  be  given  to  proper  lighting.  Light  shafts  over 
the  sorting-table  may  be  necessary.  It  is  impossible  to 
sort  and  grade  fruit  properly  in  darkened  rooms.  (4)  It 
is  usually  advisable  that  larger  packing-sheds  be  equipped 
with  mechanical  sizers.  (5)  Storage  space  should  be  pro- 
vided for  loose  fruit  so  that  the  packing  operation  may 
continue  for  a  day  or  more  without  continued  supply  from 
the  orchard.  There  should  be  storage  also  for  one  or  more 
days'  run  of  packed  apples  so  that  it  will  be  unnecessary  to 
ship  odd  lots  of  fruit.  (6)  An  important  point  in  pack- 
ing-house arrangement  is  to  provide  a  conveyer  or  some 
means  for  preventing  the  culls  from  accumulating  around 
the  packing-table.  (7)  A  receiving  platform  should  be 
built  at  a  convenient  height  for  unloading  fruit  from 
wagons.  When  mechanical  sizers  are  used,  it  is  advisable 
to  have  the  receiving  platform  at  the  same  elevation  as 


302  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

the  sizing  machine.  This  obviates  the  necessity  of  lifting 
the  fruit  in  feeding  the  sizer.  (8)  In  passing  through 
the  different  'packing-house  operations,  the  fruit  should 
continue  in  the  same  general  direction.  (9)  Ample  floor 
space  should  be  provided.  Congestion  greatly  slows  up 
packing  operations.  (10)  A  building  more  nearly  square 
is  better  than  a  long  narrow  structure.  (11)  Building  on 
a  hillside  may  permit  fruit  to  be  unloaded  and  packed  on 
the  second  floor.  Packed  fruit  may  then  be  stored  on  the 
first  floor  and  hauled  out  from  the  lower  side  of  the  build- 
ing, and  all  fruit  can  be  lowered  to  the  basement  by  chutes 
or  reverse  elevators  where  it  can  accumulate  without  in- 
terfering with  operations  about  the  packing-table. 

Handling  the  western  box  apple  crop 

The  packing-house,  whether  it  be  a  rude  shelter  or  an 
elaborately  equipped  plant,  is  a  recognized  necessity  in 
handling  the  boxed  apple  crop.  More  exact  grading  and 
sorting  are  required  for  boxed  apples  and  this  labor  may 
be  performed  best  in  the  centralized  packing-house  to 
which  the  fruit  is  drawn  from  the  orchard.  As  stated 
above,  common  storage  space  is  very  often  combined  with 
the  packing-shed,  particularly  in  the  case  of  the  commu- 
nity packing-house.  In  such  instances,  the  packing- 
house serves  a  double  purpose.  It  provides  space  not  only 
for  the  necessary  packing-house  equipment,  but  also  for 
storing  a  large  portion  of  either  the  loose  or  packed  fruit. 
It  is  generally  estimated  that  the  packing-house  should 
have  storage  for  about  one-third  of  its  total  output.  In 
regions  where  car  shortage  is  likely  to  occur,  this  is  a 
good  form  of  insurance. 

There  is  a  most  decided  drift  to  the  community  packing 


Handling  the  Crop  303 

system  in  most  western  districts  and  under  this  plan, 
large  expensive  packing-houses  are  practicable.  The  in- 
dividual grower,  however,  commonly  uses  a  lean-to  shed 
or  small  frame  apple  house  frequently  constructed  with 
a  concrete  basement.  Enough  space  is  usually  provided 
in  the  packing-house  for  storing  a  considerable  quantity 
of  loose  fruit  which  may  be  packed  out  in  inclement 
weather. 

Orchard  carriers. 

In  the  boxed  apple  regions,  the  orchardist  usually  dis- 
tributes loose  boxes  under  the  trees  throughout  the  or- 
chard so  that  the  picker  is  not  obliged  to  carry  the  fruit 
away  from  the  base  of  the  tree.  Lug  boxes,  made  of 
heavier  lumber  and  slightly  larger  than  the  ordinary  apple 
box,  have  met  with  some  favor  as  orchard  carriers.  As  a 
matter  of  economy,  however,  the  western  grower  ordinarily 
prefers  to  use  the  standard  northwest  box  as  an  orchard 
carrier,  later  using  the  same  box  as  a  package  for  the 
graded  fruit. 

Low-wheeled  orchard  wagons  are  employed  in  haul- 
ing the  loose  boxes  to  the  packing-shed. 

Sorting  and  packing  the  boxed  apples. 

The  operation  of  sorting  is  logically  divided  into  sizing 
and  grading  for  color,  quality  and  freedom  from  blemishes. 
As  has  been  stated,  the  barrel  apple  crop  has  thus  far 
largely  been  packed  out  according  to  grades  based  on 
size,  although  in  some  regions  distinction  is  made  between 
the  first  and  second  grade  according  to  color  and  quality, 
and  freedom  from  blemishes. 

In  the  West,  three  standard  grades  are  recognized  and 


304  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

are  commonly  spoken  of  as:  (1)  Extra  Fancy,  (2) 
Fancy,  and  (3)  C  grade.  Grading  rules  governing  these 
three  grades  vary  slightly  from  year  to  year.  In  a  gen- 
eral way,  however,  only  normal  apples  approaching  physi- 
cal perfection  are  specified  as  falling  within  the  Extra 
Fancy  grade.  Greater  tolerance  in  the  way  of  color  re- 
quirements and  blemishes  is  permitted  in  the  Fancy  grade, 
although  the  fruit  must  be  perfectly  sound  and  of  a  high 
marketable  quality.  The  "  C "  grade  permits  poorly 
colored  or  slightly  misshapen  fruit  which  is  still  sound. 
In  the  Pacific  Northwest,  all  three  grades  are  wrapped 
with  paper,  the  diagonal  pack  being  used. 

It  is  customary  to  hire  sorters  by  the  day  while  packing 
is  by  the  piece.  In  the  inter-mountain  regions  including 
the  states  of  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  and  Utah,  all  grades 
are  not  wrapped.  In  these  states,  a  jumble  or  face  and  fill 
pack  is  common  except  in  the  case  of  Extra  Fancy  apples. 

It  is  interesting  to  know  that  in  the  movement  for 
standardization  of  grades  and  packs,  less  attention  is  being 
given  to  grading  by  size  and  more  according  to  quality 
and  physical  perfection.  This  is  particularly  applicable 
to  the  Northwest  where  the  size  of  apples  is  clearly  indi- 
cated by  the  number  stamped  on  the  outside  of  the  box. 

The  mechanical  sizer,  although  growing  in  popularity 
and  more  widely  used  in  the  West  than  elsewhere,  is  not 
universal  among  all  box  apple-growers.  It  is  generally 
felt  that  a  mechanical  sizer  is  only  practicable  when  the 
crop  amounts  to  10,000  boxes  or  more.  Many  western 
growers  still  prefer  to  sort  out  their  fruit  from  canvas  or 
burlap-top  tables  similar  to  those  used  in  the  East  and 
Middle  West.  Still  others  sort  directly  from  the  picking 
boxes  as  they  are  drawn  to  the  packing-house.  When  hand 


Handling  the  Crop  305 

sorting  is  practiced,  the  sorters  usually  grade  out  the  fruit 
into  three  grades  without  regard  to  size,  the  sizing  being 
done  by  the  packers.  A  long  table  with  the  sorters  on  one 
side  and  the  packers  on  the  other  has  been  found  efficient 
by  many  western  growers.  Others  not  infrequently  size 
and  grade  by  hand  from  canvas  conveyer  belts. 

Packing-house  arrangement  and  operation. 

As  might  be  expected,  efficiency  is  exceedingly  import- 
ant in  western  packing-houses,  where  the  system  of  grad- 
ing and  handling  is  very  intricate.  In  the  larger  packing- 
houses of  the  West,  conveyer  belts  and  gravity  conveyers 
are  commonly  used  in  receiving  the  fruit  from  the  wagon 
and  for  moving  the  boxes  about  the  warehouse  or  into 
the  car. 

Gravity  or  belt  conveyers  eliminate  much  irksome  labor 
in  lifting  boxes.  In  the  modern  packing-houses  of  the 
West,  the  boxes  of  loose  fruit  are  unloaded  from  the  wagon 
upon  conveyers  and  are  quickly  carried  to  any  part  of 
the  house  desired.  In  moving  the  boxes  about  within  the 
house,  conveyers  are  used  in  bringing  the  loose  fruit  to 
the  sizer  and  afterwards  in  carrying  the  packed  boxes  to 
the  car  or  into  storage.  In  the  smaller  houses,  waiters 
are  usually  employed  in  carrying  the  fruit  about  the  pack- 
ing-house in  order  that  the  sorters  and  packers  may  con- 
tinue their  work  uninterrupted. 

When  mechanical  sizers  are  used,  much  the  same  system 
of  operation  is  followed  as  has  been  outlined  for  the  pack- 
ing-house with  mechanical  sizers  under  eastern  conditions, 
but  it  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  many  more  sizes 
are  packed  out  in  the  case  of  boxed  apples  than  with  the 
barrel  pack.  For  this  reason,  a  more  elaborate  system  of 


306  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

bins  and  a  more  accurate  sizing  machine  is  necessary.  In 
most  of  the  larger  packing-sheds  of  the  West,  the  main 
floor  is  used  for  receiving  the  fruit  and  as  the  packing- 
room. 

The  system  of  handling  the  loose  fruit  as  it  comes  in 
from  the  orchard  is  important.  A  receiving  platform  on 
the  north  side  of  the  house  is  convenient  for  storing  the 
fruit  which  is  to  be  packed  out  immediately.  Additional 
storing  space  for  the  loose  boxes  should  be  provided  on  the 
packing  floor.  All  congestion  tends  to  inefficiency.  In- 
creased needs  should  be  anticipated. 

An  example  of  efficiency  is  seen  in  the  large  packing- 
shed  which  is  equipped  with  conveyer  belts  carrying  the 
loose  boxes  from  the  wagon  directly  to  the  sizing  machine. 
Sorters  examine  the  apples  and  then  pass  them  to  the  siz- 
ing mechanism,  and  packers  stationed  at  the  bins  imme- 
diately pack  the  fruit.  Carriers  or  conveyors  bring  empty 
boxes  to  the  packers  and  carry  the  packed  boxes  to  the 
nailer.  The  packed  fruit  is  then  nailed,  stamped  and 
carried  by  conveyors  either  into  storage  or  into  the  car  for 
shipment.  The  movement  of  fruit  to  the  car  is  delayed 
only  by  temporary  storage  as  it  is  being  fed  into  the  sizer. 
As  emphasized  before,  it  is  important  that  the  fruit  con- 
tinue in  one  direction  when  passing  through  the  packing- 
house. Careful  attention  should  'be  given  to  the  disposi- 
tion of  culls  which  are  likely  to  cause  congestion  if  left  to 
accumulate  on  the  packing  floor.  Removing  the  culls  to 
elevated  bins  by  conveying  belts  or  allowing  them  to  pass 
by  means  of  canvas  chutes  into  the  basement  are  two  means 
of  solving  this  problem.  The  increasing  value  of  cull 
fruit  makes  it  advisable  that  this  part  of  the  crop  be 
handled  with  great  care  to  prevent  unnecessary  bruising. 


PLATE  XIX. —  Packing  the  fruit.  1.  Well  packed  boxes  of  apples 
showing  different  styles  of  packing  used  on  large  and  small  fruit. 
2.  Good  example  of  ring  tailing.  3.  An  excellent  face  made  with 
2%-inch  apples.  4.  Trucks  have  largely  supplanted  this  method 
of  hauling  packed  boxes  in  the  Wenatchee  Valley. 


Handling  the  Crop  307 

Mechanical  sizer  (Plate  XX) 

The  sizing  machine  has  become  such  an  important  fac- 
tor in  the  handling  of  both  the  commercial  barreled  and 
boxed  apple  crop  as  to  require  separate  treatment.  It 
seems  apparent  that  this  labor-saving  device  is  destined  to 
play  an  increasingly  important  part  in  the  handling  of 
commercial  apples.  The  chief  criticism  offered  against  it 
is  the  attending  danger  of  careless  handling,  which  is 
being  rapidly  eliminated  by  greater  mechanical  perfec- 
tion and  judicious  operation.  One  of  the  greatest  ad- 
vantages of  the  mechanical  grader  is  sometimes  over- 
looked. It  lies  in  the  precision  with  which  the  fruit  may 
be  handled.  A  machine  properly  fed  insures  a  steady 
flow  of  fruit  through  the  packing-house.  Shirking,  wasted 
or  lost  time  becomes  apparent  at  any  delay. 

There  are  two  general  types  in  mechanical  sizers :  Those 
which  size  by  weight  and  those  which  size  by  measure- 
ment. The  former  type  seems  best  adapted  to  the  use  of 
the  western  growers,  owing  to  the  fact  that  boxed  apples 
must  be  closely  sized.  Machines  of  the  second  type  are 
more  commonly  used  throughout  the  East  where  extreme 
accuracy  is  not  required.  Sizing  machines  vary  in  size, 
capacity,  and  price.  The  grower  should  insist  on  thor- 
ough demonstration.  Electricity  is  the  most  satisfactory 
motive  power  in  operating  the  larger  machines,  although 
gasoline  engines  and  even  hand  power  are  very  often 
employed  with  the  smaller  types. 

The  following  points  should  be  considered  when  pur- 
chasing a  sizing  machine:  (1)  The  capacity  of  the  sizer 
should  be  consistent  with  the  amount  of  fruit  to  be  handled. 
(2)  Simplicity  of  design  should  be  sought  as  well  as  dur- 


308  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

ability.  Extreme  accuracy  is  not  required  in  sizing 
barreled  apples  as  is  the  case  with  boxed  apples.  (3)  The 
sizing  should  be  accomplished  without  bruising  the  fruit. 

Community  packing-houses 

The  community  packing-house  idea  is  gaining  in  popu- 
larity and  prominence,  being  a  development  of  the  cooper- 
ative movement  so  important  among  fruit-growers.  The 
advantages  of  community  packing-houses  are  numerous, 
and  yet  this  plan  is  feasible  only  under  certain  favorable 
conditions.  At  the  present  time,  most  of  the  community 
packing-houses  are  in  the  western  apple  regions.  By 
far  the  larger  portion  of  the  crop  in  such  districts  as  Wen- 
atchee  is  being  packed  out  under  the  community  plan. 
This  practice  is  gaining  in  western  Xew  York  and  in 
many  other  regions,  and  promises  to  play  an  increasingly 
important  part  in  the  efficient  handling  of  the  barrel  apple 
crop. 

Some  of  the  necessary  conditions  for  the  successful  oper- 
ation of  community  packing-houses  are  as  follows:  (1) 
The  plan  is  feasible  only  where  more  or  less  intensive 
and  centralized  plantings  occur.  While  instances  have 
been  cited  when  fruit  has  been  successfully  hauled  twenty 
miles  to  a  communuity  packing-house,  it  seems  highly 
important  that  sufficient  fruit  be  obtained  within  a  radius 
of  about  four  miles.  Twelve  miles,  over  good  roads,  is 
given  as  the  maximum  haul  in  the  Pacific  Northwest. 
(2)  One  hundred  cars  is  usually  considered  the  minimum 
which  can  be  handled  through  a  community  packing-house 
with  the  greatest  economy.  (3)  Community  packing- 
houses should,  scarcely  without  exception,  be  situated  on  a 
railroad.  (4)  There  must  be  a  community  spirit  and 


Handling  the  Crop  309 

willingness  to  cooperate  among  growers.  (5)  There 
must  be  some  uniformity  in  the  character  of  the  fruit 
handled  in  order  that  there  may  be  a  common  interest 
among  growers. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  advantages  in  the  com- 
munity packing-house  plan:  (1)  There  is  a  possibility  of 
a  greater  standardization  of  grades.  Apples  packed  up 
under  a  single  management  will  be  more  uniform  in  grade 
than  if  packed  under  the  direction  of  a  dozen  or  more  indi- 
viduals. (2)  Competent  help  may  be  attracted  by  longer 
periods  of  employment.  (3)  By  combining  capital  it 
becomes  possible  for  the  growers  to  build  modern  packing 
plants  and  equip  them  with  all  the  labor-saving  devices 
without  incurring  too  great  overhead  expense.  (4)  It 
becomes  economical  to  provide  storage  space  as  an  insur- 
ance against  loss.  (5)  A  saving  of  3  to  5  cents  a  box  and 
10  to  15  cents  a  barrel  is  ordinarily  effected  in  handling 
the  crop,  particularly  if  supplies  are  purchased  in  quan- 
tities for  the  members.  (6)  Community  trucks  may  be 
employed  economically  in  hauling  fruit  to  the  packing- 
house. (7)  The  grower  may  give  his  entire  attention  to 
the  packing  operation  instead  of  devoting  his  efforts  to 
finding  a  packing  crew. 

Methods  of  operating  community  packing-houses. 

In  most  instances  the  grower  hauls  his  fruit  in  loose 
boxes  or  barrels  to  the  community  shed  where  it  retains 
the  grower's  identity  during  the  packing  operation.  The 
cost  of  packing  is  pro  rated  by  the  barrel  or  box  among 
the  contributing  members.  Sufficient  fruit  must  be 
handled  to  warrant  the  employment  of  a  competent  man- 
ager. 


310  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

An  interesting  plan  has  been  evolved  and  is  being  oper- 
ated successfully  in  certain  parts  of  the  West.  Under 
this  method  the  grower's  fruit  loses  its  identity,  first 
being  weighed  and  credit  being  given  for  a  certain  amount 
of  fruit  by  weight.  A  sample  is  taken  representing  3  to  5 
per  cent  of  each  load  and  unbiased  inspectors  grade  out 
the  sample  to  determine  what  percentage  will  fall  within 
the  different  grades.  In  this  way,  the  grower  of  high- 
grade  fruit  is  protected  and  credited  for  his  superior 
product.  The  two  principal  advantages  of  this  plan  are 
that  it  saves  about  one-third  of  the  storage  space  in  the 
packing-house  since  each  grower's  fruit  does  not  have  to 
be  packed  by  itself,  and  the  growers  know  immediately  into 
what  grades  their  fruit  will  pack  out.  The  chief  disad- 
vantages are  that  much  depends  on  the  sample  and  the 
fruit  may  not  pack  out  according  to  tests  which  causes 
dissatisfaction  among  members.  The  tendency  is  to 
examine  fruit  too  critically. 

Packing-house  construction. 

Common  storage  plays  such  an  important  part  in  the 
handling  of  the  boxed  apple  crop  that  it  should  receive 
separate,  although  necessarily  brief,  consideration  in  this 
discussion.  Very  often  and  particularly  under  the  com- 
munity plan,  the  packing-house  serves  also  as  a  common 
storage.  It  is  a  common  practice  in  the  Northwest  to 
pack  the  fruit  on  the  main  floor  and  store  in  the  basement. 
Occasionally  only  a  portion  of  the  building  is  insulated, 
the  remainder  being  used  solely  for  the  packing  opera- 
tions. In  some  instances,  the  packing-house  is  entirely 
separate  but  adjoining  a  common  storage. 

In  any  event,  it  should  be  remembered  that  a  room  can- 


Handling  the  Crop  311 

not  serve  as  a  common  storage  and  at  the  same  time  be 
used  for  packing  operations.  Particularly  is  this  true  in 
the  early  fall  when  Jhe  day  temperatures  are  high.  At 
this  time  of  the  year,  all  doors  and  openings  should  be  kept 
tightly  closed  during  the  day.  It  is  even  suggested  that 
the  doors  be  opened  to  admit  fruit  only  in  the  early  morn- 
ing. It  is  still  better  to  open  no  doors  but  admit  the  boxes 
through  a  small  opening  fitted  with  canvas  flap,  as  can 
be  done  if  conveyers  are  used. 

The  hollow  tile  construction  once  so  popular  in  the 
Northwest  is  not  entirely  successful  without  other  insul- 
ators. In  laying  such  tile,  it  is  impossible  to  make  all 
joints  perfect  and  for  this  reason  the  dead  air  space  is 
lost.  Cork  is  the  most  effective  insulator  but  it  is  very 
expensive.  Eight  inches  of  mill  shavings  used  either  in 
frame  or  hollow  tile  construction  is  the  most  economical 
and  at  the  same  time  efficient  insulator  for  the  West.  The 
hollow  tile  has  the  advantage  of  being  fire-proof. 

Common  storage  has  not  been  successful  with  fall  var- 
ieties such  as  the  Jonathan,  since  their  ripening  period 
occurs  before  nature's  cooling  temperatures  are  obtained. 
Such  varieties  should  be  shipped  immediately  or  placed 
in  cold  storage.  The  Delicious  deteriorates  and  the  Spitz- 
enburg  tends  to  shrivel  in  common  storage.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Stayman,  if  stored  unpacked,  sometimes  keeps 
better  in  common  than  in  cold  storage  on  account  of  its 
tendency  to  scald  in  the  latter.  A  well  constructed  com- 
mon storage,  if  properly  operated,  can  be  safely  used  in 
the  Pacific  Northwest  for  holding  most  late  varieties  until 
February  and  some  into  March. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  points  to  be  kept  in 
mind  when  holding  or  operating  a  common  storage:  (1) 


312  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

The  intake  area  should  represent  1  per  cent  of  the  floor 
space  and  the  intake  should  occur  below  the  false  floor. 
(2)  Boxes  may  be  piled  six  high  if  two  or  three  feet  air 
space  is  left  between  the  topmost  box  and  the  ceiling.  (3) 
Mill  shavings  tend  to  become  wet  and  to  rot  out  when  used 
in  basement  constructions.  (4)  Basement  storage  has 
the  advantage  of  being  cheaper  usually  and  more  econom- 
ical of  ground  since  the  packing-room  is  overhead.  At 
the  same  time,  as  stated  above,  mill  shavings  tend  to  rot 
out  and  there  is  the  extra  labor  in  lifting  fruit  when  it  is 
to  be  taken  out  of  storage.  (5)  Eight  inches  of  mill 
shavings  with  one  inch  air  space  on  either  side  is  generally 
recommended  for  the  Pacific  Northwest.  (6)  Since  the 
success  of  common  storage  depends  largely  on  ventilation, 
attention  must  be  given  to  the  installation  of  false  floors 
and  proper  air  intakes  and  outlets. 

Bulk  shipments 

In  discussing  the  handling  of  the  apple  crop,  no  refer- 
ence has  been  made  to  bulk  shipment.  In  the  Middle 
West,  particularly  in  the  Ozark  and  in  the  Missouri 
regions,  bulk  shipments  sometimes  represent  over  one-half 
of  the  crop.  Ben  Davis  and  Grimes  lend  themselves  to 
this  method  of  handling.  Bulk  shipments  are  important 
from  Colorado  and  New  Mexico. 

In  bulk  handling,  the  apples  are  loaded  loose  into  cars 
previously  bedded  with  straw.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  these  apples  are  strictly  commercial  and  enter  into 
competition  with  barreled  stock.  As  might  be  expected, 
there  is  little  uniformity  in  the  quality  of  the  fruit  mar- 
keted in  this  way.  There  is  an  urgent  need  for  standard- 
ization along  such  lines. 


CHAPTER  XV 
MARKETING  AND  STORAGE 

BOTH  distribution  and  marketing  are  of  prime  import- 
ance in  the  commercial  apple  industry.  It  is  not  sufficient 
that  the  apple-grower  shall  spray,  prune  and  cultivate  his 
trees  so  that  they  will  produce  high-class  fruit,  but  he 
must  familiarize  himself  with  the  best  systems  of  market- 
ing in  order  that  his  crop  may  be  disposed  of  in  the  most 
satisfactory  manner. 

Much  has  been  said  of  the  cooperative  marketing  system 
for  fruits.  Little  has  been  done  in  developing  this  system, 
however,  in  the  apple  regions  outside  of  thje  Pacific  North- 
west. The  eastern  and  middle  western  growers  handle 
their  production  largely  by  consignment,  through  brokers, 
or  sell  directly  to  cash  buyers.  The  apple-grower  employs 
three  common  methods  in  disposing  of  his  crop:  (1)  sell- 
ing on  consignment;  (2)  selling  packed  or  graded  fruit 
to  cash  buyers,  or  selling  the  entire  crop  in  the  orchard 
to  "  lump  "  buyers ;  (3)  selling  under  a  cooperative  system. 

SELLING  ON  CONSIGNMENT 

Many  growers  have  practiced  consignment  with  entire 
satisfaction,  although  this  method  of  marketing  has  been 
the  subject  of  some  criticism.  The  personal  element  is 
the  determining  factor.  There  are  commission  firms  of 
the  highest  integrity  whose  services  and  expert  knowledge 

313 


314  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

of  marketing  can  be  made  invaluable  to  the  producer.  A 
grower  should  carefully  investigate  the  standing  of  the 
firm  with  which  he  proposes  to  deal. 

Cash  sales  are  desirable  but  in  years  of  heavy  produc- 
tion and  for  the  grower  with  miscellaneous  and  odd  lot 
shipments,  consignment  is  sometimes  the  only  alternative. 
Not  infrequently  growers  have  established  relations  with 
certain  commission  merchants  and  employ  these  same  firms 
year  after  year. 

SELLING   TO    CASH   BUYERS 

At  present  the  cash  buyer  is  the  dominant  figure  in  the 
marketing  of  the  commercial  apple  crop.  The  legitimate 
cash  buyer  performs  a  necessary  service  in  the  distribution 
of  the  commercial  crop.  He  buys  for  an  established  trade 
and  requires  only  a  limited  margin  to  insure  a  fair  profit. 
In  most  instances  he  is  an  experienced  salesman,  always 
seeking  to  develop  and  open  new  markets.  The  cash  buyer 
is  a  figure  of  growing  importance  in  the  apple  industry. 

Much  has  been  said  with  reference  to  the  popular 
demand  "  direct  to  the  consumer."  The  fact  remains, 
however,  that  the  middle-man  performs  an  important 
service  in  the  distribution  of  any  crop.  It  must  be  re- 
membered, furthermore,  that  even  the  present  cooperative 
selling  organizations  sell  largely  through  brokers  or  to  cash 
buyers  on  the  market  but  operate  in  such  circumstances 
as  to  secure  more  consideration  than  individuals  can  com- 
mand. Buyers  must  have  profits  commensurate  with  the 
risk  and  sufficient  to  cover  their  overhead,  and  if  they  lose 
in  one  operation  they  quite  naturally  must  receive  suf- 
ficient profit  to  make  up  for  such  losses. 

The  best  and  most  satisfactory  system  for  dealing  with 


Marketing  and  Storage  315 

the  cash  buyer  is  to  sell  a  certain  grade  of  a  variety  at  a 
cash  price,  f.  o.  b.  the  car.  The  importance  of  contracts 
should  be  emphasized  even  in  cash  sales.  Verbal  contracts 
permit  much  misconstruction  and  misunderstanding.  It 
is  always  important  that  definite  specifications  should  be 
drawn  up  as  to  the  grade  and  variety  of  the  fruit,  time 
of  delivery  and  method  of  inspection.  Much  can  be  gained 
by  a  thorough  understanding  between  the  buyer  and  the 
seller.  Contracts  are  particularly  indispensable  when 
business  operations  are  conducted  at  long  range. 

The  lump-sum  cash  buyer. 

Under  this  head  is  described  the  system  of  selling  the 
entire  crop  on  the  trees  to  a  buyer  who  packs  and  grades 
out  the  fruit,  assuming  entire  risk  in  handling  the  crop. 
In  general  such  a  system  of  marketing  is  very  unsatisfac- 
tory. It  is  obvious  that  the  buyer's  risk  is  necessarily 
great  and  that  he  therefore  must  necessarily  have  a  large 
margin  of  profit.  There  is  probably  no  other  region  in 
which  this  system  of  marketing  fruit  is  so  widely  prac- 
ticed as  in  the  Watson ville  district  or  the  Pajaro  Valley  of 
California.  Lump-sum  buying  strikes  a  blow  at  the  com- 
munity spirit  by  checking  the  development  of  a  high 
standard  for  the  output  of  a  region. 

Tree-ran  cash  buyer. 

Throughout  certain  regions  and  particularly  in  western 
Xew  York,  the  tree-run  buyer  plays  an  important  part  in 
the  marketing  of  the  apple  crop.  Under  this  system  the 
cash  buyer  offers  a  certain  price  a  barrel  for  the  grower's 
entire  crop,  culls  and  cider  stock  sometimes  excluded. 
The  buyer  then  grades  and  packs  out  the  fruit.  Growers 


316  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

of  rather  low-grade  fruit  are  attracted  to  this  system  of 
selling.  However,  the  tree-run  system  of  handling  fruit 
does  not  encourage  the  highest  cultural  methods  and  tends 
to  lower  the  grade  of  fruit  produced.  It  should  be  dis- 
couraged. 

COOPEBATIVE  METHODS  OF  SELLING 

Cooperative  handling  and  marketing  has  been  most 
widely  attempted  in  the  western  states,  both  in  the  distri- 
bution of  citrus  and  deciduous  fruits.  Confronted  with 
the  problems  of  rapidly  increasing  production,  extreme 
distance  from  market  and  high  land  values,  the  western 
fruit-grower  has  realized  the  precariousness  of  highly 
specialized  farming  and  has  felt  the  need  of  organization 
and  cooperation  more  keenly  than  the  eastern  growers. 
Heavy  investment  has  made  it  impossible  for  him  to  turn 
to  other  types  of  farming,  and  it  has  been  in  periods  of 
desperation  when  prices  failed  to  meet  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction that  most  comprehensive  cooperative  movements 
have  been  inaugurated.  It  should  not  be  understood  that 
failure  has  constantly  followed  in  the  foot-steps  of  the 
western  fruit-grower,  for  years  of  good  prices  and  large 
yields  have  brought  excellent  returns.  The  western 
grower  in  many  instances  has  devoted  his  entire  capital  to 
the  production  of  fruit.  Naturally  he  resorts  to  every 
means  within  his  power  to  stabilize  and  organize  the  indus- 
try on  a  profitable  basis.  When  a  period  of  low  prices 
prevails  in  the  East  or  Middle  West,  the  growers  of  these 
regions  having  more  diversified  farms  give  less  attention 
to  the  growing  and  marketing  of  their  apple  crop  and 
more  attention  to  their  other  enterprizes. 

One  of  the  largest  cooperative  fruit  marketing  organiza- 


Marketing  and  Storage  317 

tions  in  the  United  States,  known  as  the  California  Fruit 
Growers'  Exchange,  was  organized  in  1905  for  the  purpose 
of  solving  the  complex  marketing  and  distributing  prob- 
lems confronting  the  citrus-growers  of  southern  California. 
A  similar  organization  exists  among  the  Florida  citrus- 
growers  and  at  present  among  the  Georgia  peach-growers. 
Each  of  these  organizations  controls  more  than  half  of  the 
fruit  production  of  its  respective  region. 

It  must  not  be  understood  that  the  apple  industry  is 
exactly  analogous  with  either  the  citrus  or  peach  industry. 
The  citrus  region  of  southern  California  is  extremely 
compact;  the  same  is  true  of  the  Florida  citrus  district. 
These  two  sections  embrace  comparatively  few  counties, 
yet  represent  in  production  nearly  the  entire  citrus  crop 
of  the  United  States.  The  Georgia  peaches  are  among  the 
first  to  reach  the  market  and  competition  is  limited  largely 
by  the  production  from  Texas,  Oklahoma  and  Arkansas. 
The  apple  crop  which  comes  on  the  market  at  about  the 
same  time  from  many  regions  represents  a  different 
problem. 

Cooperative  handling  of  apples  has  played  a  very 
important  part  in  the  industry  of  the  western  irrigated 
sections,  notably  in  the  Grand  Valley  of  Colorado,  in  the 
Yakima,  Wenatchee  and  Spokane  valleys  of  Washington ; 
in  the  Hood  Eiver  Valley  of  Oregon  and  in  certain  dis- 
tricts of  Idaho.  It  has  been  difficult  to  follow  the  growth 
and  development  of  each  of  the  many  cooperative  organiza- 
tions in  the  Northwest.  Some  have  persisted  and  enlarged 
their  scope,  while  others  have  been  abandoned.  Many 
more  have  failed  than  have  succeeded.  Very  few  of  the 
cooperative  marketing  organizations  which  were  operative 
a  few  years  ago  are  in  existence  to-day.  There  is  always 


318  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

* 

the  inherent  individualism  of  farmers  as  a  class  to  be  con- 
sidered and  also  their  strong  inclination  toward  inde- 
pendent operation  of  their  own  business  affairs. 

There  can  be  little  argument  advanced  against  coopera- 
tion among  fruit-growers,  the  question  being  as  to  just 
how  far  this  cooperation  will  extend  and  what  form  it 
will  assume.  The  following  are  some  of  the  necessary 
elements  for  successful  cooperative  marketing: 

(1)  There  must  be  a  community  spirit  in  the  region 
which  will  prompt  growers'  to  act  cooperatively. 

(2)  There  must  be  more  or  less  compactness  and  con- 
centration   of    planting.     Growers    operating    scattering 
orchards  at  a  considerable  distance  from  one  another  can 
seldom   be   brought   together   under   a  cooperative   plan. 
There  must  be  a  sufficient  quantity   of  fruit   produced 
within  a  more  or  less  limited  region  in  order  that  the  crop 
may  be  handled  economically  under  cooperation.     Many 
cooperative  organizations  have  failed  on  account  of  excess- 
ive overhead  expense. 

(3)  A  desirable  membership  must  be  secured.     One 
danger  with  newly  organized  associations  is  that  in  their 
eagerness  for  new  members  they  are  likely  to  acquire  a 
quantity  of  undesirable  fruit  which  must  be  handled  by  the 
association.     Rather    than    lose    members    and    political 
prestige,  the  management  very  often  fails  to  enforce  grad- 
ing rules  and  thereby  permits  the  low-grade  fruit  to  deter- 
mine the  selling  price. 

In  trying  to  bring  too  many  growers  under  one  associa- 
tion, the  organizers  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  only  a  small 
percentage  of  the  apple  crop  of  the  United  States  is  pro- 
duced in  any  one  state  or  region.  The  advantage  of 
controlling  a  large  percentage  of  the  tonnage  in  any  one 


Marketing  and  Storage  319 

district  is  not  to  be  questioned,  but  too  great  importance 
should  not  be  attached  to  large  memberships,  particularly 
if  they  are  indiscriminately  selected.  From  a  practical 
standpoint,  the  best  organizations  are  those  which  have 
grown  gradually  in  membership  and  which  have  been 
careful  to  exclude  the  grower  of  poor  fruit.  By  having 
only  the  cream  of  the  output  of  any  particular  region,  the 
best  returns  are  obtained  for  the  growers. 

(4)  Distance  from  market  is  another  important  factor 
which  must  be  considered  for  successful  cooperation.  An 
apple-grower  situated  close  to  market  who  has  exception- 
ally high  quality  fruit,  for  which  he  has  built  up  a  special 
market,  will  be  less  inclined  to  abandon  his  special  trade 
for  membership  in  an  association.  On  the  other  hand, 
growers  in  more  remote  regions  have  favored  cooperation 
since  it  sets  up  machinery  to  relieve  them  of  the  entire 
problem  of  marketing  their  own  fruit  for  which  they  have 
neither  the  experience  nor  training.  In  addition,  it  en- 
ables them  to  have  personal  representatives  in  distant 
markets. 

Form  of  organization  for  cooperative  associations. 

There  are  two  general  forms  for  organizing  cooperative 
associations:  (1)  stock  corporation;  (2)  non-stock  system. 

Of  these  the  non-stock  system  is  the  better.  Rather 
than  sell  stock  and  maintain  a  private  corporation  which 
may  drift  into  the  hands  of  a  few  of  the  largest  stock- 
holders, it  is  better  that  each  contributing  member  should 
cast  a  single  vote  in  a  purely  non-profit  or  cooperative 
society.  The  voting  power  under  this  system  might  be 
made  to  vary  according  to  the  amount  of  fruit  shipped,  but 
as  a  rule  the  one  vote  a  member  system  is  most  satisfactory 


320  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

and  equitable.  In  emphasizing  the  advantage  of  the  non- 
stock system,  it  should  be  stated  that  such  organizations 
enjoy  special  benefits  under  legislation  fostering  coopera- 
tive effort  among  farmers.  The  activities  of  private  stock 
corporations  may  be  curtailed  by  legislation  designed  to 
prevent  operations  in  restraint  of  trade. 

Good  business  management  is  one  of  the  prime  prere- 
quisites for  the  establishment  of  a  successful  cooperative 
organization.  It  is  obvious  that  a  sufficiently  large  ton- 
nage of  fruit  must  be  handled  to  warrant  the  employment 
of  an  experienced  and  competent  manager.  The  board  of 
directors  should  exercise  supervisory  powers  and  should  be 
thoroughly  in  touch  with  the  business  operation  of  the  or- 
ganization. Too  often  association  managers  have  been  se- 
lected on  account  of  their  political  activity  rather  than  for 
their  training  and  experience  in  marketing  fruit.  It  is 
highly  important  that  this  manager  should  have  ability  as 
a  salesman;  otherwise  the  advantages  of  cooperative  selling 
may  be  lost. 

Good  business  practices  should  be  employed.  A  proper 
accounting  and  auditing  system  should  be  installed  and 
those  handling  the  funds  should  be  bonded.  It  should  be 
possible  for  the  directorate  and  management  to  know  the 
exact  condition  of  the  business  at  all  times. 

If  a  cooperative  organization  is  to  enjoy  stability,  its 
members  must  be  bound  under  a  specified  contract  to  sell 
their  fruit  through  the  association.  One-year  contracts 
are  usually  satisfactory,  although  they  may  be  made  for 
a  longer  term.  On  joining  the  association,  each  member 
should  be  required  to  sign  a  contract  whereby  he  agrees  to 
sell  his  fruit  through  the  association.  This  contract  must 


Marketing  and  Storage  321 

be  legally  binding.  It  is  obvious  that  no  well-organized 
selling  system  can  be  developed  unless  the  management 
knows  approximately  the  amount  of  tonnage  which  it  will 
be  called  on  to  handle. 

Pooling. 

The  practice  of  pooling  the  fruit  of  different  members 
of  an  association  and  selling  it  under  one  brand  has  devel- 
oped widely  in  the  West.  Uniformity  in  the  quality  of 
the  fruit  in  each  pool  is  an  absolute  necessity  to  the  suc- 
cessful operation  of  such  a  system;  otherwise  the  poor 
fruit  will  bring  down  the  price  of  the  good  and  result  in 
dissatisfaction  among  members.  In  other  words,  the  most 
successful  pools  can  only  be  brought  about  when  the  fruit 
of  the  contributing  members  has  been  grown  with  similar 
cultural  methods  and  under  similar  climatic  and  soil 
conditions. 

The  only  criticism  which  may  be  brought  against  pool- 
ing is  that  it  may  penalize  the  grower  of  exceptionally 
fine  fruit.  This  may  be  avoided,  however,  if  careful  grad- 
ing rules  are  adopted  and  unbiased  inspection  is  enforced. 
Under  a  successfully  operated  pool,  the  grade  of  all  fruit 
may  be  raised  rather  than  lowered,  thus  insuring  the  high- 
est market  price.  Another  distinct  advantage  under  the 
pooling  system  is  in  the  protection  which  it  affords  an 
individual  grower  against  the  sudden  rise  or  fall  in  prices. 
One  shipment  of  fruit  may  be  damaged  in  shipment,  or 
may  be  sold  at  a  figure  lower  than  later  market  prices. 
This  loss  distributed  over  a  large  membership  would  not 
be  felt,  but  with  an  individual  it  might  be  disastrous.  All 
fruit  cannot  be  placed  on  the  market  at  the  same  time 


332  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

and  in  effecting  successful  distribution  the  association  may 
employ  the  pooling  system  very  satisfactorily  in  securing 
an  average  high  price  for  its  fruit. 

The  central  packing-house  which  is  playing  so  import- 
ant a  part  in  the  cooperative  handling  and  pooling  of  fruit 
has  been  given  separate  treatment  in  Chapter  XIV. 

Purchase  of  supplies. 

A  most  direct  benefit  to  be  derived  from  cooperative 
organizations,  and  one  which  appeals  very  strongly  to 
growers,  is  the  purchase  of  necessary  supplies  in  large 
quantities  at  low  prices.  Thisv  factor  very  often  proves 
the  tie  that  holds  the  membership  together  in  the  face  of 
adversity,  since  it  offers  a  concrete  example  of  the  advant- 
age of  dealing  in  quantities.  Spray  materials,  boxes  or 
barrels,  and  all  supplies  necessary  in  the  production  and 
marketing  of  apples,  can  very  often  be  purchased  in  quan- 
tity by  the  association  at  a  great  saving  to  its  members. 
In  many  instances  these  materials  are  advanced  to  the 
grower  in  the  form  of  credit,  his  crop  having  previously 
been  signed  up  with  the  association  as  security  for  such 
advances.  A  double  saving  may  result  from  the  ability 
of  the  association  to  buy  materials  on  a  cash  basis  and 
extend  credit  to  its  members,  by  using  their  combined 
security  as  a  basis  for  lower  interest  rates  on  borrowed 
capital  than  the  individual  might  be  obliged  to  pay. 

DISTRIBUTION 

Better  distribution  is  the  keynote  in  all  successful  mar- 
keting efforts.  The  methods  by  which  the  grower  gets 
his  fruit  into  commercial  channels  have  already  been  dis- 
cussed. In  studying  the  machinery  of  distribution,  there 


Marketing  and  Storage  323 

are  four  fairly  well  defined  factors:  (1)  The  commission- 
man;  (2)  the  broker;  (3)  the  carlot  operator;  (4)  the 
carlot  distributor. 

Com  missio-n-man. 

The  commission-man  is  usually  allowed  5  to  10  per 
cent  of  the  gross  sales  for  his  services.  His  incentive  for 
making  satisfactory  returns  is  his  desire  for  retaining  the 
business  of  his  patron.  As  emphasized  elsewhere,  the  suc- 
cess of  this  system  of  marketing  depends  entirely  on  the 
personal  element.  It  is  obvious  that  the  commission  mer- 
chant must  know  in  advance  of  the  quantity  of  goods  he 
will  be  called  on  to  handle.  Therefore,  if  this  method  is 
employed,  arrangements  should  be  made  as  far  in  advance 
as  possible.  , 

The  broker. 

The  legitimate  apple  broker  is  one  of  the  important 
factors  in  the  distribution  of  the  commercial  crop.  His 
function  is  to  negotiate  sales  between  dealers  or  between 
growers  and  dealers.  The  commission-man  handles  the 
consignment,  keeps  all  accounts  and  deducts  his  commis- 
sion. The  broker  does  not  handle  the  funds,  but  receives 
a  stipulated  commission,  say  $10  to  $15  a  car  for  his 
services. 

Theoretically,  the  broker  represents  both  the  seller  and 
buyer.  He  is  supposed  to  advise  the  seller  as  to  general 
marketing  conditions,  or  in  other  words  take  the  place  of 
a  personal  representative  in  the  market.  He  is  supposed 
also  to  help  in  making  equitable  settlement  in  case  of  dis- 
putes between  contracting  parties.  The  personal  equation 
enters  very  largely  into  this  situation.  The  grower  would 


324  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

do  w?ll  to  inform  himself  as  to  the  integrity  of  the  firm 
with  which  he  proposes  to  deal,  and  by  establishing  rela- 
tions with  reliable  firms  be  able  to  insure  best  results. 

The  usual  method  of  procedure  in  dealing  with  the 
broker  is  as  follows:  The  seller  having  a  carload  of  a 
certain  grade  of  a  variety  will  advise  his  broker  of  the 
fact  and  of  the  price  which  he  desires.  The  broker  will 
undertake  to  place  the  car  and  if  successful  will  communi- 
cate with  the  seller,  instructing  him  to  forward  the  fruit. 
This  method  of  handling  really  amounts  to  an  f.  o.  b.  sale, 
permission  being  given  by  the  grower  for  inspection  at 
destination.  In  case  of  a  misunderstanding  over  grades, 
the  broker  is  in  a  position  to  effect  equitable  settlement. 
The  grower  bills  his  fruit  to  the  broker  or  to  the  buyer, 
attaching  a  sight  draft  to  the  bill  of  lading  which  is  sent 
to  a  bank  designated  by  the  buyer.  After  inspection  on 
arrival,  the  buyer  lifts  the  draft  through  his  banker, 
thereby  effecting  a  direct  settlement  with  the  seller. 

Carlot  operator. 

The  carlot  operator  plays  an  important  part  in  the 
distribution  of  the  commercial  apple  crop.  He  is  usually 
represented  in  important  regions  of  production  by  cash 
buyers,  who  contract  fruit  on  his  account.  The  carlot 
operator  may  sell  again  in  carload  lots,  may  place  the 
fruit  in  storage  on  his  own  account  or  may  distribute  it  to 
the  jobber  or  retailer.  The  amount  of  business  handled  by 
carlot  operators  may  vary  from  a  very  few  cars  to  several 
hundred  or  even  thousands,  depending  somewhat  on  the 
field  for  distribution.  The  carlot  operator  for  a  city  with 
a  more  or  less  limited  field  may  be  able  to  distribute  suc- 
cessfully only  a  few  cars.  A  large  operator  with  head- 


Marketing  and  Storage  325 

quarters  in  New  York  City  may  distribute  his  purchases 
all  over  the  world.  The  carlot  operator  usually  has  a 
certain  trade  built  up  in  a  given  region  and  buys  to  supply 
this  trade.  His  business  resembles  that  of  a  wholesale 
groceryman  who  carefully  gauges  the  demands  of  his  cus- 
tomers and  buys  to  fill  their  needs. 

Carlot  distributors. 

In  recent  years,  various  forms  of  distributing  agencies 
have  been  established  for  the  purpose  of  accomplishing  in 
a  measure  for  the  whole  country  what  a  broker  or  commis- 
si<}n  merchant  does  for  his  immediate  city  or  vicinity.  By 
handling  a  large  volume  of  business,  such  agencies  are  en- 
abled to  build  up  a  competent  sales  organization  at  a  fairly 
low  overhead.  Cooperative  marketing  associations  or  in- 
dividual growers  frequently  employ  such  selling  agencies 
usually  on  a  flat  fee,  a  package  or  occasionally  on  a  per- 
centage basis.  For  an  additional  charge  the  sales  agency 
sometimes  does  the  necessary  warehousing. 

This  type  of  sales  service  has  many  advantages.  While 
growers  or  growers'  organizations  are  usually  obliged  to 
sign  up  their  crop  in  advance  of  the  season,  they  are  given 
the  privilege  of  confirming  or  rejecting  orders  as  secured 
by  the  selling  agency.  Not  infrequently  carlot  distribu- 
tors help  finance  the  crop  by  making  advances  to  individual 
growers  during  the  growing  season. 

FIELD  OF  DISTBIBUTION 

Foreign  markets. 

The  extension  and  development  of  foreign  markets  is  a 
popular  subject  for  consideration.  The  extent  to  which 
this  trade  may  be  developed  is  of  course  largely  a  matter 


326  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

of  conjecture.  If  the  high  quality  apple  approaches  a 
luxury  for  many  persons  of  this  country,  it  indeed  repre- 
sents a  luxury  for  most  foreign  consumers.  When  trans- 
portation, duty,  insurance,  interior  freight  and  duty  are 
added  to  the  original  cost,  the  American  apple  can  appeal 
only  to  the  well-to-do.  Despite  this,  exportations  to  for- 
eign markets  in  some  years  have  approximated  10  per 
cent  of  the  total  commercial  apple  crop  of  this  country. 
While  the  amount  of  export  trade  varies  considerably  with 
the  size  of  the  crop  and  with  general  marketing  conditions, 
a  study  of  the  figures  indicates  a  very  considerable  normal 
increase  in  exportation  of  fresh  apples  in  the  past  ten 
years. 

The  United  Kingdom  has  always  been  the  principal 
export  market,  absorbing  normally  over  80  per  cent  of  all 
export  trade.  Australia  and  even  oriental  markets  have 
been  studied  more  recently  with  the  view  to  effecting 
wider  distribution  of  the  apple  crop.  These  latter  markets 
are  as  yet  of  little  importance  in  comparison  with  the 
heavy  European  demand. 

Business  relations  at  long  range  are  sometimes  unsatis- 
factory. But  if  this  difficulty  may  be  overcome,  export 
fields  are  promising.  If  this  country,  with  its  abundance 
of  fresh  food  stuffs,  can  absorb  over  twenty  million  barrels 
of  commercial  apples  annually,  it  seems  reasonable  that 
foreign  trade,  particularly  with  thickly  populated  Euro- 
pean countries,  will  afford  an  excellent  outlet  for  at  least 
10  per  cent  or  more  of  the  total  production.  Such  an 
outlet  will  always  relieve  the  strain  on  local  markets  and 
will  act  as  a  safety  valve  for  the  excess  supplies  which 
might  otherwise  glut  domestic  trade. 

Barreled  and  boxed  apples  were  in  general  about  equally 


PLATE  XX. —  Sizing  and  grading  machines.  Upper,  Sizing  ma- 
chine with  diverging  spiral  rollers.  Middle,  This  machine  sizes 
the  fruit  through  cups  which  enlarge  as  the  belt  moves  along. 
Lower,  Grading  machine  equipped  with  sizing  belts  made  of  linked 
rings.  A  common  type  used  in  many  sections. 


Marketing  and  Storage  327 

represented  in  the  export  trade  of  the  United  States  for 
1919.  Of  the  barreled  apples,  the  Baldwin  and  Northern 
Spy  from  New  York  and  New  England,  York  Imperial  and 
Ben  Davis  from  the  Shenandoah-Cumberland  region  and 
Yellow  Newtown  or  Albemarle  Pippin  from  the  Piedmont 
of  Virginia,  have  been  the  leading  export  varieties.  Of 
the  western  boxed  apples,  Yellow  Newtown,  Winesap, 
Jonathan,  Esopus  and  White  Pearmain  have  been  the  most 
prominent  varieties  for  export. 

Improved  distribution  within  the  United  States. 

The  greatest  opportunity  in  the  field  of  distribution  is 
in  the  extension  and  development  of  domestic  trade. 
Attention  has  been  called  to  the  fact  that  the  home  orchards 
generally  throughout  the  United  States  have  been  dying 
out  and  that  the  commercial  industry  is  being  centralized 
in  a  few  favored  regions.  The  line  of  distinction  between 
commercial  and  non-commercial  production  is  being  more 
closely  drawn.  The  consumers  are  demanding  a  higher 
class  product  and  on  being  furnished  with  this  are  increas- 
ing their  demand. 

Not  many  years  ago  before  the  installation  of  general 
cold  storage  facilities,  the  trade  in  small  towns  and  even 
the  larger  cities  was  supplied  from  the  cellar  of  the  gen- 
eral farmer  who  grew  a  few  more  apples  in  his  home 
orchard  than  he  had  need  for.  These  orchards  in  most 
instances  have  been  going  backward ;  the  trees  are 
unsprayed,  the  fruit  is  inferior  in  quality  and  unattractive. 
Consumers  are  coming  to  demand  a  better  product.  It  is 
in  supplying  the  demand  in  these  smaller  towns  and 
cities  that  the  commercial  apple-grower  will  find  the  great- 
est opportunity  for  better  distribution, 


328  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

The  secret  of  success  in  the  distribution  of  the  California 
orange  crop  has  been  its  sale  in  every  cross-road  village  in 
the  country.  The  production  and  sale  of  oranges  in  recent 
years  has  increased  much  more  rapidly  than  has  popula- 
tion. By  organized  effort,  wider  distribution  into  the 
smaller  markets,  the  orange-growers  have  been  marketing 
a  constantly  increasing  production.  The  same  may  be 
accomplished  by  the  apple-growers  and  shippers  if  they 
will  employ  similar  methods  of  advertisement  and  dis- 
tribution. 

Whether  the  growers  market  their  apples  cooperatively, 
through  private  brokers  or  by  private  sales  service,  there 
must  be  campaigns  of  education  and  advertisement  in 
order  to  effect  distribution.  The  futility  of  trying  to  work 
out  broad  comprehensive  plans  for  distribution  when  each 
grower  or  shipper  acts  independently  is  evident.  Such 
plans  lend  themselves  best  to  cooperative  effort.  The  bur- 
den of  expense  incident  to  the  working  out  of  better  plans 
of  distribution  must  be  widely  distributed  in  order  that 
it  will  not  fall  too  heavily  on  any  one  individual. 

The  question  of  advertisement  presents  an  interesting 
field.  Notable  examples  of  the  establishment  of  brands 
of  commercial  grades  are  seen  in  the  efforts  of  different 
associations  in  the  Pacific  Northwest.  By  assessing  each 
box  sold  under  a  given  brand  with  a  small  charge  for 
advertisement,  large  sums  are  secured  to  carry  out  adver- 
tising campaigns.  By  limiting  the  varieties  sold  under  a 
given  brand  to  those  of  high  dessert  quality,  by  including 
only  the  highly  desirable  sizes  and  zealously  enforcing 
grading  rules,  shippers  can  develop  a  brand  of  superb 
marketable  quality.  Whether  such  a  system  can  be  recom- 
mended for  general  adoption  remains  to  be  seen.  Such 


Marketing  and  Storage  329 

advertisement  has  gone  far  in  effecting  better  distribution 
for  the  northwestern  boxed  apples. 

Physical  handling. 

The  same  attention  should  be  given  to  better  physical 
handling  of  apples  as  to  better  cultural  methods.  A 
grower  can  not  afford  to  devote  his  best  energies  in  pro- 
ducing high  quality  apples  only  to  subject  them  to  the 
abuse  of  improper  physical  handling.  The  importance  of 
careful  orchard  practices  with  reference  to  picking  and 
packing  and  immediate  storage  have  been  emphasized. 
In  addition  the  apples  must  be  transported  in  cars,  must 
be  handled  in  and  out  of  storage  and  in  all  of  these  opera- 
tions much  can  be  done  to  improve  present  methods.  The 
development  of  new  types  of  refrigerator  cars,  improved 
methods  of  car  loading  and  ventilation  are  of  vital  import- 
ance to  the  apple-growers  and  shippers. 

GRADES  AND  STANDARDS 

The  movement  for  uniform  grades  and  standards  should 
be  considered  by  every  apple-grower.  Probably  no  other 
phase  of  the  marketing  problem  is  receiving  greater  atten- 
tion at  this  time  than  that  of  standard  grade  and  pack. 
Certainly  no  other  movement  can  do  more  in  stabilizing  the 
apple  industry. 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  the  standardization  of  grade 
and  pack  is  a  governmental  function.  There  is,  however, 
a  variance  of  opinion  as  to  methods  of  enforcement.  State 
and  federal  legislation  has  been  formulated  with  the  view 
towards  promulgating  certain  definite  rules  which  shall 
specify  the  character  of  fruit  to  be  sold  under  established 


330  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

standard  grades.  These  rules  are  intended  to  act  as  a 
standard  of  measure,  whereby  the  buyer  may  judge  the 
character  and  the  contents  of  the  closed  package  of  apples. 
In  other  words,  the  label  on  the  package  of  apples  is  to 
be  made  to  tell  the  truth.  The  difficulties  of  promulgating 
a  set  of  rules  which  will  please  every  one  or  even  a  major- 
ity is  at  the  outset  a  difficult  problem.  Furthermore,  once 
promulgated  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  secure  the  enforce- 
ment of  such  a  set  of  rules. 

Standard  package. 

Obviously  the  first  step  in  standardization  is  the  estab- 
lishment of  uniform  packages.  This  has  already  been 
effected  to  a  great  extent  by  the  adoption  of  the  dual  stand- 
ard, i.  e.  the  standard  barrel  and  the  standard  box.  Per- 
sons are  accustomed  to  think  of  commercial  apples  in 
terms  of  barrels  and  boxes.  In  a  geographic  way,  line  of 
distinction  between  barrel  apple-producing  areas  and  box 
apple-producing  areas  has  been  closely  drawn.  For  Col- 
orado and  states  west,  the  box  is  the  almost  exclusive  pack- 
age, while  for  the  eastern  and  middle  western  apple  crop 
the  barrel  is  almost  exclusively  used. 

From  time  to  time  different  packages  have  been  intro- 
duced, but  their  popularity  has  been  more  or  less  tempor- 
ary. Various  crates  have  been  recommended  for  western 
low-grade  apples  and  in  certain  seasons  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  New  York  crop  has  moved  out  in  bushel 
baskets.  The  five-eighths-bushel  hamper  is  very  popular 
in  the  early  apple  regions  of  New  Jersey  and  Delaware. 
In  many  ways  the  smaller  package  enjoys  a  distinct  advant- 
age, and  while  the  barrel  will  probably  remain  the  stand- 
ard package  for  eastern  and  middle  western  apples,  it  is 


Marketing  and  Storage  331 

not  improbable  that  the  growers  will  find  it  advisable  to 
market  a  part  of  their  crop  in  smaller  packages  in  order 
to  attract  the  smaller  purchaser. 

The  bulk  handling  of  apples  should  receive  separate 
consideration.  In  normal  years,  at  least  half  of  the  pro- 
duction of  the  Ozark  and  the  Missouri  Eiver  region  is  sold 
in  bulk.  Recently  bulk  handling  has  featured  in  the  move- 
ment of  the  apple  crop  from  Colorado  and  Xew  Mexico. 
Middle  western  growers  maintain  that  the  bulk  handling 
of  a  certain  grade  of  apples  is  an  efficient  system  since 
it  enables  them  to  sell  a  portion  of  their  crop  to  a  class 
of  trade  which  would  otherwise  be  unable  to  buy  commer- 
cial apples.  The  middle  western  grower  further  main- 
tains that  after  carefully  bedding  a  car  with  straw,  he  is 
able  to  load  apples  in  bulk  without  severe  bruising.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  this  bulk  movement  from  the 
West  is  essentially  competitive  with  the  barreled  crop. 

Many  state  laws  have  been  enacted  looking  towards  the 
establishment  of  uniform  grades  and  standards  for  com- 
mercial apples.  For  the  most  part,  these  laws  are  inac- 
tive on  account  of  lack  of  funds  for  their  enforcement. 
Washington  has  devoted  as  much  effort  along  these  lines 
as  probably  any  other  state,  unless  it  is  New  York.  The 
Washington  grading  laws  provide  for  an  annual  meeting  of 
apple-growers,  at  which  time  uniform  grade  specifications 
are  adopted  for  the  ensuing  year.  In  other  words,  no 
hard  and  fast  rules  are  laid  down  for  a  period  of  years  and 
the  specifications  are  subject  to  change  each  year  at  the 
majority  will  of  the  growers.  Obviously,  a  law  which 
would  be  applicable  for  all  states,  and  furthermore  which 
could  be  enforced,  would  have  to  be  rather  general.  Such 
a  law,  however,  would  tend  to  keep  poorly  graded  fruit 


332  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

out  of  commercial  channels  and  would,  therefore,  work  to 
the  benefit  of  the  strictly  commercial  growers  in  the  highly 
intensive  regions.  It  is  not  criminal  to  grow  low-grade 
fruit,  but  such  fruit  should  not  be  misbranded  or  should 
not  sell  under  false  colors  to  the  detriment  of  the  producer 
of  high-grade  apples. 

The  question  of  "  facing  "  the  barrel  pack  is  one  over 
which  much  discussion  has  arisen.  "  Facing  "  refers  to 
the  practice  of  placing  select  apples  on  the  top  layer  in 
order  to  give  a  good  appearance  to  the  pack.  This  does 
not  enter  into  the  problem  of  box  standards,  since  inspec- 
tion may  be  made  at  the  top,-  bottom,  or  side  of  the  box. 
While  it  may  be  legitimate  to  arrange  the  top  layer  so  as 
to  give  a  neat  appearance  to  the  barrel  pack,  a  real  stand- 
ard grading  law  would  surely  require  the  contents  of  the 
barrel  to  be  uniform. 

The  project  of  establishing  uniform  grades  and  stand- 
ards enlists  much  active  support  and  at  the  same  time  is 
the  subject  of  much  controversy.  Generally  speaking, 
every  concerted  move  towards  a  standardization  of  grade 
and  pack  will  work  to  the  benefit  of  the  strictly  commer- 
cial apple-grower  and  will  serve  to  make  a  closer  distinc- 
tion between  the  commercial  and  non-commercial  crop. 
For  that  reason  every  conscientious  effort  in  working  out 
uniform  grades  and  standards  seems  meritorious. 

Inspection  at  point  of  origin. 

Many  prominent  apple-growers  are  insistent  on  govern- 
ment inspection  at  point  of  origin.  A  common  reason 
for  low  returns  to  the  grower  has  been  the  poor  condition 
of  the  fruit  at  the  time  of  its  arrival  at  market.  Further- 
more, there  are  always  changes  in  transport  to  be  reckoned 


Marketing  and  Storage  333 

with.  Federal  and  state  governments  may  be  potent  fac- 
tors in  controlling  evils  which  exist  under  the  present  sys- 
tem of  fruit  inspection. 

Some  apple-growers  think  inspection  at  point  of  origin 
should  entirely  supplant  that  at  the  place  of  arrival.  In 
other  words,  it  is  maintained  that  all  sales  should  be  made 
f.  o.  b.  and  that  the  purchaser  should  assume  the  risk 
after  the  apples  have  been  shipped.  While  inspection  at 
point  of  origin  is  unquestionably  a  highly  desirable  step 
and  will  go  far  toward  better  understanding  between 
grower  and  dealer,  it  seems  hardly  probable  that  the  buyer 
will  assume  all  risk  incident  to  the  transportation  and 
delivery  of  the  fruit  without  a  rather  large  margin  com- 
mensurate with  the  risk. 

The  report  of  an  unbiased  government  inspector  would 
be  of  great  value  to  any  one  interested  in  the  purchase  or 
sale  of  apples.  Such  inspection  at  point  of  origin  and 
particularly  at  place  of  destination  would  establish  the 
damage,  if  any  in  transit,  and  would  do  much  in  effecting 
satisfactory  business  dealings.  If  the  shipper  could  be 
reliably  informed  as  to  the  exact  condition  in  which  his 
fruit  arrives  at  destination,  it  would  materially  aid  in 
studies  affecting  proper  handling  methods. 

STORAGE 

The  storing  of  apples  is  intimately  associated  with  prob- 
lems of  marketing  and  yet  it  is  a  subject  of  such  complex- 
ity as  not  to  permit  of  complete  treatment  without  thor- 
ough scientific  discussion  involving  the  practice  of  storage- 
house  construction  and  methods  of  management.  Only 
brief  consideration  can  be  given  to  storage  in  this  work, 
however. 


334  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

The  effects  of  improved  storage  have  been  far  reaching. 
It  is  obvious  that  a  practice  which  will  prolong  the  market- 
ing period  of  any  seasonal  commodity  will  have  a  great 
influence  in  its  distribution.  The  possibility  of  storing 
fruit  has  also  had  an  important  influence  on  our  leading 
commercial  apple  varieties.  Formerly  only  a  few  of  the 
very  late  keeping  sorts  were  available  for  distribution  dur- 
ing the  late  winter  and  early  spring  months. 

Under  the  present  system  of  handling  through  storage, 
it  is  possible  to  prolong  the  life  of  more  delicate  and 
higher  quality  varieties  and  in  this  way  greatly  stimulate 
the  demand  for  apples  late  in  the  season.  The  greater 
part  of  the  commercial  apple  crop  will  always  be  placed 
in  storage  for  periods  of  varying  length  and  a  general 
knowledge  of  the  principles  involved  is  of  much  import- 
ance. The  difference  between  common  and  cold  storage 
is  generally  understood.  The  former  method  depends  on 
natural  atmospheric  temperatures  and  the  latter  on  arti- 
ficial cooling. 

Life  processes  of  the  apple  do  not  cease  at  the  time  of 
picking  and  it  is  important  to  retard  these  processes  by 
getting  the  fruit  into  storage  with  as  little  delay  as  possible. 
A  day  or  two  of  exposure  to  the  warm  sun  may  shorten 
the  life  of  the  fruit  very  materially.  Emphasis  has 
already  been  placed  on  the  desirability  of  transferring  the 
fruit  from  the  orchard  to  the  packing-house  as  quickly 
after  picking  as  possible. 

Local  vs.  distance  storage. 

Cold-storage  plants  were  formerly  situated  near  the 
larger  markets.  In  recent  years,  however,  there  has  been 
a  growing  tendency  towards  the  establishment  of  cold- 


Marketing  and  Storage  335 

storage  plants  in  the  regions  of  production.  Storage  at 
the  point  of  origin  has  one  distinct  advantage.  By  keep- 
ing the  fruit  here  the  shipper  or  grower  is  not  committed 
to  any  particular  market,  but  may  hold  his  fruit  or  ship 
to  such  market  as  he  may  see  fit.  By  holding  a  portion  of 
the  crop  in  regions  of  production,  the  strain  on  transporta- 
tion facilities  at  harvest  time  is  very  materially  reduced. 
Storage  for  at  least  half  the  crop,  particularly  in  areas  of 
large  production,  seems  to  be  recognized  as  a  necessary 
provision.  If  the  grower  or  shipper  has  a  well  established 
market,  it  is  advisable  for  him  to  store  his  fruit  in  or 
near  that  market  rather  than  hold  it  at  point  of  origin. 
In  this  way  his  product  is  available  for  quick  delivery 
under  favorable  marketing  conditions  in  quantities  to  meet 
the  demand  and  is  not  exposed  to  the  dangers  incident  to 
traffic. 

.As  stated  above,  cold-storage  plants  are  for  the  most 
part  situated  in  the  eastern  states.  Large  plants  are 
located  through  western  New  York  and  provide  excellent 
facilities  for  handling  the  barreled  crop  of  this  region. 
Here  it  is  possible  for  the  grower  to  haul  his  fruit  imme- 
diately to  the  cold  storage.  At  the  same  time  he  enjoys  the 
advantage  of  being  in  close  touch  with  the  eastern  market- 
ing conditions. 

Common  storage. 

Common  storage  has  as  yet  played  only  a  small  part  in 
the  handling  of  the  eastern  apple  crop.  In  the  Pacific 
Northwest,  however,  this  form  predominates  and  is  an 
important  factor  in  the  handling  of  the  crop  from  that 
region. 

No  attempt  will  be  made  to  discuss  in  detail  the  relative 


336  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

merits  of  different  types  of  common  storage  construction. 
The  success  in  managing  in  the  early  fall  depends  on  atten- 
tion given  to  the  opening  of  vents  and  doors  during  the 
night  and  closing  of  them  during  the  day.  If  the  storage- 
rooms  are  not  kept  separate  from  the  packing-rooms,  the 
purpose  of  the  cooling  system  is  largely  defeated. 

Small  storage  plants  on  individual  farms  or  in  connec- 
tion with  community  organizations  are  becoming  more  and 
more  common.  By  having  separate  rooms  for  packing  or 
using  the  basement  only  for  storage,  a  combination  pack- 
ing- and  storage-house  may  be  constructed  economically. 
The  grower  may  then  feel  greater  sense  of  security  in 
knowing  that  he  will  have  several  weeks  or  even  months  in 
which  to  dispose  of  his  fruit.  Common  storage  can  never 
supplant  cold-storage  and  its  efficiency  will  vary  some- 
what with  the  season.  As  an  economical  and  somewhat 
more  temporary  method  of  prolonging  the  marketing  pe- 
riod of  commercial  apples,  it  is  serving  an  important  need. 

Handling  and  cultural  methods  as  relating  to  storage. 

There  is  a  growing  belief  that  general  health  and  vigor 
of  the  trees  has  a  greater  influence  on  the  keeping  qualities 
of  fruit  than  has  been  generally  recognized.  However, 
the  development  of  scalds  and  spots  and  the  deterioration 
in  storage  is  most  frequently  traced  back  to  over-maturity 
or  under-maturity  or  rough  handling  of  the  fruit.  One 
advantage  in  home  storage  is  that  the  evidences  of  these 
troubles  may  be  brought  home  more  forcibly  to  the  grower. 

GOVERNMENT   AGENCIES   IN    MARKETING 

While  the  greatest  effort  in  improving  marketing  condi- 
tions has  been  exerted  by  the  growers  and  shippers  them- 


Marketing  and  Storage  337 

selves,  very  important  steps  have  been  taken  in  this  direc- 
tion by  various  agencies  in  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  notably  the  Bureau  of  Crop  Estimates  and 
the  Bureau  of  Markets.  Certain  phases  of  the  market 
ing  problem,  such  as  inspection,  the  issuance  of  crop  fore- 
casts and  market  reports,  lend  themselves  best  to  govern- 
mental agencies.  It  is  impracticable  for  the  individual  or 
even  groups  of  individuals  successfully  to  study  all  phases 
of  marketing  work. 

Crop  estimates. 

The  need  for  reliable  crop  forecasts  is  imperative  if  the 
grower  is  to  determine  the  price  which  he  might  reasonably 
expect  for  his  fruit.  The  perishability  of  the  apple  as 
compared  with  more  stable  crops  accentuates  this  need.  It 
is  obvious  that  the  government  is  best  fitted  to  carry  on 
such  investigations  and  can,  by  the  issuance  of  reliable 
forecasts,  render  an  important  service  to  the  commercial 
apple-grower. 

Market  and  storage  reports. 

The  second  very  important  service  which  properly  can 
be  rendered  by  a  governmental  agency  is  the  issuance  of 
reports  showing  the  distribution  of  the  crop.  By  compre- 
hensive investigation  it  is  possible  for  the  government  to 
issue  reports  showing  the  point  of  origin  and  destination 
of  each  carload  of  commercial  apples.  Shippers  and 
growers  alike  will  be  enabled  to  use  this  information  in 
seeking  out  untouched  markets.  Since  the  keynote  in 
better  marketing  is  the  extension  of  distribution  to  small 
towns  and  cities,  it  may  be  seen  that  the  result  of  such 


338  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

investigation  will  be  an  invaluable  guide  to  better  distribu- 
tion. 

The  value  of  unbiased  market  reports  which  will  afford 
the  growers  and  shippers  alike  the  benefit  of  telegraphic 
news  service  as  relating  to  the  price  and  marketing  condi- 
tions of  apples  in  the  different  centers  is  already  recog- 
nized. 

COOPERATION  VS.   INDIVIDUAL  EFFORT 

The  government  has  at  all  times  encouraged  and  fos- 
tered cooperative  spirit  among  growers.  Despite  this  co- 
operative effort,  it  must  be  recognized  that  by  the  issuance 
and  dissemination  of  reliable  crop  forecasts  and  reports, 
and  by  its  market  news  and  inspection  service,  the  govern- 
ment is  making  the  individual  more  independent  and  more 
able  to  conduct  his  business  than  formerly.  Just  what 
the  effect  of  these  divergent  tendencies  will  be  remains  to 
be  seen.  For  the  exceptional  grower,  the  man  with  un- 
usual business  acumen,  it  may  mean  that  he  will  be  en- 
abled to  conduct  his  individual  business  independently  to 
his  greatest  satisfaction.  On  the  whole,  however,  the  bene- 
fits of  cooperation  are  not  to  be  denied  and  will  doubtless 
continue  to  play  an  increasingly  important  part  in  mar- 
keting. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
YIELDS 

GOOD  yields  are  absolutely  essential  to  insure  profit 
from  any  orchard  enterprise.  The  most  detailed  care  may 
be  given  to  an  orchard,  but  if  it  is  made  up  of  poor  yield- 
ing varieties  or  if  the  soil  or  climate  is  not  suitable  for 
production,  good  care  is  only  time  and  money  wasted. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  important  to  secure  good  yielding 
varieties.  Most  standard  varieties  of  the  present  day 
yield  fairly  well,  but  many  new  and  untried  yet  widely 
advertised  sorts  are  very  poor  annual  bearers.  Ben  Davis, 
Baldwin,  Winesap,  Stayman,  Jonathan,  York,  Rhode 
Island  Greening,  and  Rome  Beauty  are  old  and  standard 
varieties,  the  high  yielding  qualities  of  which  are  well 
known.  Yellow  Xewtown  and  Yellow  Bellflower  are 
heavy  bearing  in  certain  sections,  particularly  in  the 
Watsonville  district  of  California.  In  Virginia  the  light 
bearing  Yellow  Newtown  (Albemarle  Pippin)  and  the 
Arkansas  (Black  Twig)  are  not  being  planted  as  extens- 
ively as  the  more  prolific  York  Imperial  and  Stayman. 
Among  earlier  varieties,  Oldenburg  (Duchess),  Wealthy, 
Gravenstein  and  Maiden  Blush  are  classed  as  reliable 
bearers.  Yellow  Transparent  does  well  in  some  sections, 
but  yields  light  crops  in  other  regions.  Northern  Spy 
requires  a  score  of  years  to  come  into  profitable  bearing, 
while  the  famous  Delicious,  despite  its  many  excellent 
qualities,  in  some  sections  is  only  a  moderate  cropper. 
339 


340  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

When  trees  of  good  yielding  varieties  are  brought  to 
bearing  age,  careful  record  should  be  kept  of  annual  yields, 
particularly  acre  yields.  One  hundred  barrels  of  commer- 
cial fruit  to  the  acre  is  a  good  average  although  trees  well 
cared  for  can  often  be  made  to  average  200  barrels  under 
normal  growing  conditions.  If  an  orchard  is  only 
averaging  from  50  to  100  barrels  to  the  acre  (many  do  not 
average  50  barrels  to  the  acre),  care  should  be  taken  to 
find  out  the  limiting  factor.  Light  yields  may  be  due  to 
a  lack  of  nitrogen  or  other  element  in  the  soil,  to  lack 
of  pollination,  or  to  poor  orchard  management.  Improper 
pruning,  thinning,  spraying  or  soil  management  are  as 
often  the  cause  of  low  yields  as  the  variety  of  the  trees, 
the  season  or  natural  fertility  of  the  soil.  Many  theories 
are  advanced  relative  to  the  development  of  fruit-buds 
and  fruiting  wood,  but  it  is  difficult  to  generalize  on  this 
subject. 

Good  orchard  management  is  for  the  purpose  of  secur- 
ing heavy  yields  and  no  study  as  to  the  cause  of  high  or 
low  yields  would  be  complete  without  a  consideration  of 
practically  every  orchard  operation.  In  analyzing  the 
cause  of  low  yields,  one  should  consider  first  soil  fertility. 
The  growing  of  leguminous  cover-crops  or  the  application 
of  such  fertilizers  as  nitrate  of  soda  may  be  necessary  to 
maintain  healthy  normal  growth  of  the  trees.  Thinning 
will  tend  to  stimulate  annual  bearing  as  well  as  greatly  to 
increase  the  amount  of  market  quality  fruit  of  any  year. 

Pruning  should  be  considered  in  relation  to  its  effect 
on  yields.  Many  advocate  summer  pruning  for  fruit. 
Under  certain  conditions  it  probably  stimulates  fruit  pro- 
duction, but  it  has  not  met  with  wide  favor  generally. 
Moderate  annual  pruning  in  the  dormant  season  is  the 


Yields  341 

best  practice.  Thinning  and  fertilization  are  much 
neglected  and  this  accounts  for  many  of  the  low  yielding 
orchards.  Eesults  are  not  secured  by  performing  one 
orchard  operation  thoroughly  and  neglecting  another. 
Proper  pruning,  spraying,  thinning  and  an  abundance  of 
available  plant-food  should  insure  large  commercial  crops 
under  normal  conditions. 

In  studying  yield,  one  should  consider  not  only  the  per- 
formances of  individual  trees  or  orchards  in  a  given  region, 
but  more  particularly  the  average  yield  on  well  managed 
orchards  typical  of  the  region.  Soil  fertility  and  good 
orchard  management  do  not  entirely  determine  yields. 
Unfavorable  weather  at  blooming  time  occurs  more  fre- 
quently in  some  regions  than  in  others  and  very  often 
greatly  reduces  annual  yields.  There  are  certain  areas, 
particularly  in  the  more  mountainous  parts  of  the  country, 
where  on  the  average  one  crop  out  of  every  four  or  five 
is  wiped  out  or  severely  damaged  by  hail.  It  is  easy  to 
understand  how  the  profits  of  good  crop  years  may  be 
almost  wiped  out  by  total  failures  in  other  years. 

In  the  Wenatchee  district  of  the  Northwest,  a  total  fruit 
crop  failure  is  unknown,  while  in  regions  like  the  Ozarks, 
the  Ohio  Valley  and  the  Missouri  River  region,  Michigan 
and  in  fact  most  eastern  sections,  very  light  crops  and 
even  failures  are  not  infrequent.  Most  of  these  failures 
are  due  to  frost  damage,  or  to  unfavorable  weather  at 
blooming  time  which  prevents  pollination.  The  frequency 
of  light  crops  and  failures  is  exceedingly  important. 

For  a  period  of  ten  years,  the  Northwest  has  had  an 
average  of  nearly  80  per  cent  of  a  full  apple  crop,  while 
for  the  same  period  Missouri,  Illinois  and  the  middle 
western  states  have  had  scarcely  50  per  cent  of  an  apple 


342  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

crop.  Michigan,  New  York  and  New  England  have 
shown  an  average  crop  condition  of  about  5  to  10  per 
cent  higher  than  the  Central  West,  while  the  crop  condi- 
tion in  the  Virginias  has  averaged  10  per  cent  higher 
than  that  of  New  York.  New  Jersey  and  Delaware  usu- 
ally end  the  season  with  a  condition  of  about  60  per  cent, 
or  2$  per  cent  less  than  the  Northwest.  Thus  it  is  seen 
that  the  chances  for  a  good  crop  are  the  greatest  in  the  Far 
West  and  are  next  in  the  middle  Atlantic  states,  third  in 
New  York  and  the  northern  states,  and  poorest  in  the 
Central  West.  The  low  average  crop  condition  in  the 
Central  West  is  largely  due  to  the  damp  and  unfavorable 
weather  which  often  occurs  during  blooming  time  to  pre- 
vent pollination  and  a  good  set  of  fruit. 

The  following  table  refers  to  western  New  York  condi- 
tions and  shows  the  average  yield  on  about  fifty  commer- 
cial orchards  in  each  county  over  a  series  of  five  to  eight 
years.  Considerable  care  was  taken  in  obtaining  these 
figures  in  order  that  they  might  accurately  represent  the 
average  performance  of  full  bearing  commercial  orchards 
in  western  New  York.  The  table  does  not  include  yields 
from  unsprayed  or  neglected  plantings,  but  represents  the 
production  of  those  orchards  which  are  being  cared  for. 
It  will  be  noted  that  Wayne  County  shows  a  larger  per- 
centage of  cull  fruit  than  any  other.  This  is  largely  due 
to  the  fact  that  Wayne  County  is  the  center  of  the  dried 
apple  industry  and  much  of  its  fruit  which  would  ordi- 
narily be  barreled  in  other  counties  is  used  for  drying 
purposes.  The  portion  of  the  crop  used  for  by-products 
varies  considerably  from  year  to  year. 


Yields 


343 


TABLE  XIV 

TABLE  SHOWING  AVERAGE  ANNUAL  YIELD  ON  THE  BEARING  COM- 
MERCIAL ORCHARDS  OF  WESTERN  NEW  YORK 


Barreled 

Yield. 

Cull  Yield 

(Barrels). 

Counties. 

Per  Acre. 

Per  cent,  of 
total  yield. 

Per  Acre. 

Per  cent,  of 
total  yield. 

Wayne  

Bbl. 
73 
93 

I 

79 

Bbl. 
37 
24 

21 

Monroe     

85 

78 

24 

22 

Orleans 

87 

77 

27 

23 

Niagara   
All  counties   

81 

84 

79 
76 

22 
27 

21 
24 

The  average  yield  of  apples  of  commercial  grade  in 
western  New  York  is  84  barrels  to  the  acre,  while  in  the 
Wenatchee  Valley  of  Washington  it  !s  between  500  and 
600  boxes  of  packed  fruit  (165  to  200  barrels).  The 
average  yield  for  the  Yakima  Valley  is  between  400  and 
500  boxes  while  that  for  the  Hood  River  Valley  is  between 
250  and  400  boxes  to  the  acre.  The  average  yield  in  Idaho 
is  between  300  and  400  boxes  to  the  acre.  In  good  crop 
years,  the  southern  Idaho  orchards  yield  nearly  as  well 
as  those  in  the  high  producing  valleys  in  Washington. 
However,  Idaho's  average  is  reduced  on  account  of  occa- 
sional crop  failures  in  years  of  frost-injury.  Killing 
frosts  are  not  uncommon  in  New  Mexico  and  Utah. 

In  comparing  these  yields  with  those  of  eastern  orchards, 
it  should  be  remembered  that  the  figures  refer  only  to 
marketable  fruit  and  do  not  include  culls,  the  percentage 
of  which  is  much  lower  in  the  Northwest  than  in  most 
eastern  regions  where  orchards  are  not  given  such  intensive 
care.  The  average  yield  of  84  barrels  to  the  acre  for 
western  New  York  is  more  than  that  throughout  the  East. 


344  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

Taking  one  year  with  another  most  of  the  middle  western 
orchards  will  not  average  over  50  barrels  to  the  acre. 
Michigan  orchards  bear  about  as  well  as  those  in  western 
New  York,  while  the  Hudson  Valley  and  New  England 
trees  average  somewhat  less  in  annual  production.  Yields 
in  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania  and  the  Shenandoah  region 
compare  favorably  with  those  of  western  New  York,  while 
yields  in  the  Piedmont  of  Virginia  will  average  lighter, 
due  to  the  greater  prevalence  of  unfavorable  weather  con- 
ditions at  blooming  time  and  also  to  the  fact  that  most 
of  the  orchards  are  mountainous  and  cultivation  is  seldom 
practiced. 

One  point  to  be  remembered  in  comparing  northwestern 
yields  with  those  of  eastern  orchards  is  that  practically  all 
yield  records  of  the  Northwest  were  taken  on  trees  from 
eight  to  fifteen  years  old,  while  in  the  East  yield  records 
were  from  trees  from  twenty  to  forty  years  old.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  are  about  twice  as  many  trees  to  the 
acre  in  the  Northwest  as  in  western  New  York  and  in  most 
all  other  eastern  regions  with  the  exception  of  Delaware, 
the  Ohio  Valley,  the  Piedmont  district  of  Virginia  and 
Carolina  and  a  few  other  limited  regions  where  the  trees 
are  either  of  early  varieties  or  have  not  as  yet  attained 
great  size.  Yields  given  for  the  Northwest,  although  for 
comparatively  young  trees,  are  very  nearly  a  maximum  for 
that  region.  As  trees  become  older,  some  will  necessarily 
be  pulled  out  on  account  of  close  planting.  Furthermore, 
under  northwestern  conditions  trees  attain  full  bearing  at 
about  ten  or  twelve  years. 

The  possibilities  of  any  section  may  be  determined  by 
searching  out  the  most  successful  growers  and  securing  a 


Yields  345 

reliable  record  of  yields  in  both  good  and  bad  years.  Cer- 
tain growers  in  western  New  York  have  harvested  200  to 
300  barrels  to  the  acre  from  their  orchards  for  a  series  of 
several  years.  Such  high  yielding  orchards  may  be  found 
about  Geneva,  Brockport  and  other  towns,  but  their  num- 
ber is  very  few.  In  the  Wenatchee  Valley  a  few  growers 
obtained  as  high  an  average  as  1,000  boxes  to  the  acre. 
Such  yields  usually  occurred  on  Rome  Beauty  or  Ben 
Davis  orchards,  however.  The  famous  Watsonville  dis- 
trict of  California  is  another  section  where  annual  yields 
of  1,000  boxes  to  the  acre  are  not  uncommon  on  the  heavy 
redwood  soils  of  the  Pajaro  Valley.  Orchards  which 
yield  fruit  in  this  amount  in  certain  years  are  found 
throughout  the  Middle  West,  but  it  is  very  seldom  that 
average  yields  approach  this  figure  even  in  the  most  care- 
fully cared  for  orchards. 

In  studying  the  yielding  possibilities  of  any  orchard, 
the  following  points  should  be  considered: 

The  size  of  the  tree. —  Relative  size  and  vigor  of  the 
tree  for  a  given  age  indicates  the  time  required  for  trees 
to  attain  maturity  in  any  given  region. 

Soil  conditions. —  The  nature  of  the  soil  should  be 
noticed,  whether  or  not  it  is  heavy  or  light,  weak  or  strong, 
and  how  well  it  is  adapted  to  tree  growth  and  fruit  pro- 
duction. 

The  frequency  of  frost-injury. —  Regions  are  often  so 
situated  as  to  render  them  very  susceptible  to  frost.  Cer- 
tain areas  in  nearly  all  sections  are  particularly  suscept- 
ible to  frost  damage. 

Unfavorable  conditions  at  blooming  time. —  Not  only 
frost  but  other  unfavorable  weather  conditions  often  occur. 


346  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

Cold  wet  weather  which  prevents  pollination  is  largely  re- 
sponsible for  low  yield  in  certain  sections.  The  history 
of  the  region  should  be  carefully  noted  in  this  regard. 

Total  crop  failures. —  The  number  of  crop  failures  in 
the  last  ten  years  in  any  locality  should  be  carefully  noted, 
for  it  is  reasonable  to  assume  that  a  like  number  will 
occur  in  the  next  ten  years.  This  consideration  is  highly 
important  and  will  also  serve  to  avoid  the  danger  of  draw- 
ing too  favorable  conclusions  from  exceptional  perform- 
ances of  orchards  in  any  particular  year. 

Relative  freedom  from  diseases  and  insect  pests. —  The 
probability  of  scab  or  bitter-rot  infection  should  be  noted 
or  the  presence  of  any  destructive  disease  or  insect  which 
may  greatly  cut  down  the  crop  even  after  the  fruit  has  set 
well.  Bitter-rot  sometimes  injures  crops  in  the  Virginia 
Piedmont  district.  Severe  infestations  of  codlin-moth  late 
in  the  season  often  cut  the  crop  in  the  dry  or  irrigated 
western  districts.  Cedar-rust  frequently  does  heavy  dam- 
age to  the  York  Imperial  crop  of  the  Shenandoah  Valley. 
Apple-blotch  often  greatly  injures  the  apple  crop  of  the 
Middle  West,  while  the  prevalence  of  apple-scab  renders 
the  market  quality  of  the  apple  crop  of  ^ew  York  and 
Michigan  uncertain.  Every  region  has  certain  troubles, 
but  it  is  well  to  be  on  the  lookout  for  them  and  to  note 
the  success  with  which  they  are  being  controlled. 

The  likelihood  of  hail  damage. —  Such  regions  as  the 
Piedmont  of  Virginia  and  to  a  lesser  degree  the  Shenan- 
doah-Cumberland  district  of  Virginia,  West  Virginia, 
Maryland  and  Pennsylvania  are  often  visited  by  hail. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  higher  altitudes  of  Colorado  and 
other  regions  where  fruit  is  grown  at  considerable  alti- 
tudes. Hail  damage  seems  to  be  more  prevalent  through- 


Yields  347 

out  the  apple  regions  of  the  South  than  in  the  northern 
states. 

Bearing  tendencies  of  varieties  common  to  the  region. — 
Varieties  differ  so  markedly  in  bearing  tendencies  that 
one  should  consider  this  factor  before  passing  judgment 
on  any  particular  region.  Often  high  quality  varieties, 
even  though  bearing  lighter  crops,  are  fully  as  profitable 
as  the  heavier  bearing  varieties  which  are  inferior  in 
market  quality. 

Average  annual  yield. —  It  is  very  important  to  rely  on 
an  average  yield  and  disregard  acre  or  tree  performances 
in  any  particular  year.  Only  averages  of  several  com- 
mercial orchards  over  a  series  of  at  least  five  years  will 
indicate  the  relative  productivity  of  different  regions.  It 
is  best  to  select  the  naturally  productive  sections  for  it  is 
no  more  difficult  to  rise  above  the  average  in  a  high-yield- 
ing region  than  it  is  in  a  naturally  low-yielding  one. 

The  importance  of  large  yields  is  further  brought  out 
under  cost  of  production.  Not  only  is  the  gross  income 
increased  with  larger  yields  but  the  cost  of  production  a 
barrel  or  box  is  greatly  lowered.  The  average  grower  will 
find  his  net  profits  greater  if  he  will  practice  more  intensive 
methods  of  culture  not  counting  the  initial  cost  so  much 
as  the  net  results. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
BY-PRODUCTS  OF  THE  APPLE  INDUSTRY 

THE  by-product  industry  has  been  of  great  importance 
for  many  years  and  has  assumed  added  significance  since 
the  advent  of  national  prohibition.  The  apple  leads  all 
other  fruits  in  popularity  for  by-products,  the  amount  used 
in  1919  exceeding  700,000  tons  of  green  fruit.  A  large 
proportion  of  this  was  made  into  vinegar  and  sweet  cider 
and  about  150,000  tons  of  green  fruit  were  dried,  making 
25,000  tons  of  dried  fruit.  Frequently  nearly  one-half 
of  the  dried  fruit  is  exported  as  compared  to  less  than 
one-tenth  of  the  fresh  fruit. 

The  by-product  industry,  on  a  commercial  scale,  has 
recently  assumed  large  proportions  in  the  Northwest  and 
the  Virginias.  In  former  years  it  reached  and  still  re- 
tains its  greatest  importance  in  western  New  York  and 
California.  In  northwest  Arkansas  also,  the  manufac- 
ture of  apple  by-products  is  an  important  industry.  Dried 
apples  within  recent  years  have  been  in  great  demand. 
The  prices  have  risen  several  times  those  of  a  decade  ago. 
California  to-day  takes  the  lead  in  intensive  apple  drying. 
About  10,000  tons  were  dried  in  the  two  counties  of  Santa 
Cruz  and  Sonoma  in  1919.  This  means  that  the  green 
apples  used  for  this  amounted  to  60,000  or  70,000  tons  or 
nearly  a  million  barrels. 

In  the  East,  Wayne  County  in  western  New  York  has 

348 


By-Products  of  the  Apple  Industry  349 

always  been  the  center  of  the  dried  apple  industry. 
Many  parts  of  the  country  are  now  taking  up  the  dried 
apple  business  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  total  apple 
production  is  being  dried.  In  California,  the  Northwest, 
New  York,  the  Virginias  and  in  Arkansas,  the  industry 
is  on  a  large  commercial  scale.  The  mountainous  parts 
of  the  southern  states,  particularly  North  Carolina,  pro- 
duce several  hundred  thousand  pounds  of  dried  apples 
annually.  In  these  states,  they  are  sun-dried  on  the 
small  mountain  farms,  the  apples  being  grown  almost 
wholly  in  old  uncared  for  orchards.  The  Buckingham 
apple  has  long  been  a  favorite  in  Carolina  for  drying  pur- 
poses. Several  varieties  are  used  for  drying  in  California 
but  the  Yellow  Bellflower  leads  all  others.  New  York 
dries  the  Baldwin  and  Rhode  Island  Greening. 

Nearly  all  driers  of  the  West  are  commercial,  while  in 
the  East  the  small  home  driers  have  long  been  adhered 
to.  Western  New  York  has  several  large  commercial 
driers  but  the  great  bulk  of  the  Wayne  County  dried  apple 
production  comes  from  the  home  driers  of  which  this 
county  contains  hundreds. 

The  by-products  industry  promises  to  put  apple-growing 
on  a  more  staple  and  less  speculative  basis.  Formerly, 
the  grower  depended  almost  wholly  on  the  price  a  barrel  or 
box  of  commercial  fruit.  At  present  if  this  price  does 
not  warrant  putting  the  apples  up  in  packages  or  contain- 
ers, they  may  be  disposed  of  at  by-product  plants  at  a 
profit.  Prohibition  has  been  the  important  factor  de- 
termining the  1919  increase  in  by-product  uses  and  prices. 
At  the  present  time,  about  20  per  cent  of  the  apple  crop 
of  the  United  States  goes  to  the  by-product  plant  or  is 
made  into  cider.  In  California,  almost  50  per  cent  of  the 


350  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

total  crop  is  dried,  while  in  Wayne  County,  New  York, 
about  30  per  cent  is  dried.  Wenatchee  and  some  of  the 
northwest  districts,  on  account  of  their  ability  to  produce 
exceptionally  high-grade  fruit,  send  less  than  10  per  cent 
to  by-product  factories.  Arkansas,  Colorado,  many  parts 
of  the  Middle  West,  Virginia,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey, 
New  York  and  New  England,  will,  no  doubt,  increase  the 
percentage  of  fruit  sold  for  by-products.  This  will  tend 
to  eliminate  low-grade  fruit  from  the  market  The  out- 
look for  the  future  is  bright  and  the  by-product  industry 
has  not  yet  begun  to  attain  full  possibilities.  It  is  only 
within  the  last  three  or  four  years  that  it  has  been  im- 
portant or  a  factor  in  the  apple  industry  of  the  Northwest. 
It  ros~e  from  a  production  of  almost  nothing  five  years  ago 
to  70,000  tons  in  1919  in  the  state  of  Washington.  Much 
more  detail  might  be  entered  into  relative  to  this  industry. 

EVAPOEATOES 

In  this  connection,  a  full  description  of  all  the  different 
types  of  evaporators  cannot  be  undertaken  and  but  little 
more  than  mention  can  be  made  of  the  different  designs 
in  use  or  in  course  of  construction.  In  general,  evapora- 
tors may  be  placed  in  three  classes:  natural  draft  evap- 
orators; forced  draft  evaporators;  and  distillation  types, 
including  vacuum  evaporators. 

Natural  draft  evaporators. 

Most  of  the  fruit  evaporators  in  use  in  New  York  and 
other  eastern  states,  in  Oregon,  Washington,  and  even  in 
California  for  the  evaporation  of  apples,  are  of  the  natural 
draft  type.  The  driers  of  this  group  require  no  fan  or 
motor  for  operation ;  any  type  of  fuel  may  be  used ;  they 


By-Products  of  the  Apple  Industry  351 

are  simple  in  construction  and  operation  and  not  expensive 
to  build  or  operate.  They  have  survived  the  test  of  time 
extremely  well,  although  it  would  seem  that  for  Californian 
conditions  at  least,  they  may  be  replaced  by  the  more 
modern  air  blast  types.  Some  of  the  natural  draft  evap- 
orators are : 

The  kiln  evaporator  is  commonly  used  in  California  and 
the  East.  It  is  usually  constructed  in  two  stories.  The 
upper  story  houses  the  drying  floor  which  is  usually  20 
feet  by  20  feet  and  is  made  of  narrow  wooden  strips  with 
14  or  %  inch  spaces  left  between  them  to  permit  passage 
of  hot  air.  Over  the  drying  floor  is  a  steep  four-sided  roof 
which  has  at  its  apex  a  large  ventilator  for  the  escape  of 
the  spent  air.  The  prepared  fruit  is  placed  on  the  floor 
and  turned  by  a  fork  or  scoop  shovel  during  drying,  a 
practice  which  does  not  add  to  the  appearance  or  cleanli- 
ness of  the  product.  The  lower  floor  contains  the  heating 
system.  This  consists  of  a  wood,  coal  or  oil-burning 
furnace  connected  to  a  number  of  turns  of  large  heating 
pipes ;  usually  the  whole  lower  story  is  almost  filled  with 
these  pipes,  giving  a  very  large  radiating  surface  with 
consequent  efficient  utilization  of  heat.  The  heated  air 
rises  from  the  pipes  through  the  floor  grating  and  thus  over 
the  fruit. 

The  stack  or  tower  evaporator  is  the  most  commonly 
used  at  Watsonville,  California,  where  it  is  successful. 
The  trays  of  fruit  are  placed  on  run-ways  in  cabinets  or 
"  stacks "  above  a  fire-pit ;  the  trays  being  stacked  one 
above  the  other.  The  heated  air  rises  directly  through  the 
trays,  in  this  way  differing  from  the  tunnel  drier.  The 
bottom  of  each  stack  or  chamber  is  open,  while  the  top 
consists  of  an  inverted  hopper  connecting  to  the  ventilator. 


352  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

There  are  many  better  types  of  evaporators  and  its  use  is 
not  strongly  recommended. 

Cabinet  evaporator  is  heated  by  steam  coils  but  other- 
wise is  very  similar  to  the  stack  evaporator  in  construction 
and  operation.  It  has  been  used  recently  in  New  York 
and  Canada  for  vegetable  and  apple  drying. 

Ceramic  oven. — The  ordinary  bake-oven  principle  has 
been  successfully  applied  in  California.  This  type  of 
drier  should  permit  of  fuel  economy  as  it  is  constructed 
throughout  of  brick  and  fire  brick.  There  is  practically 
no  fire  risk  and  radiation  losses  should  be  small. 

Electrically  heated  driers. — Small  evaporators  for  home 
use  have  been  designed  in  which  an  electric  current  passing 
through  resistance  wires  furnishes  the  necessary  heat. 
The  drier  is  of  the  stack  type.  Except  where  electricity 
is  extremely  cheap,  it  is  doubtful  whether  such  machines 
would  prove  profitable,  although  a  machine  of  recent  de- 
sign appears  to  have  great  possibilities. 

Forced  draft  evaporators. 

Most  of  the  new  driers  on  the  market  belong  to  this  class. 
The  number  of  different  forms  is  very  great  and  is  con- 
stantly being  added  to.  Their  one  common  characteristic 
is  the  forced  air  circulation.  Outside  of  this  one  feature, 
they  are  of  almost  every  conceivable  design. 

Horizontal  tunnel. — In  general,  this  type  consists  of  a 
long  chamber  or  tunnel  resting  on  the  ground  with  an  air 
heating  system  and  fan  so  arranged  that  the  heated  air 
may  be  blown  or  drawn  over  the  trays.  Usually  the  trays 
are  carried  on  trucks  which  enter  the  cooler  end  of  the 
tunnel  and  which  leave  the  tunnel  from  the  hotter  end. 
Great  variation  exists  in  the  methods  of  heating  the  air. 


By-Products  of  the  Apple  Industry  353 

The  older  types  used  steam  pipes,  a  system  which  permits 
exact  regulation  of  the  temperature  and  permits  also  of 
"  boosting  "  the  temperature  of  the  air  as  it  passes  through 
the  tunnel.  Those  who  have  used  both  steam  and  direct 
heat,  however,  prefer  the  latter  because  it  is  claimed  to  be 
more  economical  of  fuel.  Some  heating  systems  are  very 
similar  to  those  used  in  the  kiln,  stack  and  tunnel  types, 
consisting  of  a  sheet  metal  furnace  attached  to  radiating 
pipes,  the  air  being  heated  by  being  drawn  over  the  heated 
metal  surfaces.  In  another  form  of  heater,  the  air  is 
forced  through  large  pipes  held  in  a  fire-box  much  after 
the  fashion  of  boiler  flues.  The  most  interesting  develop- 
ment, however,  is  the  use  of  the  gases  of  combustion 
directly  in  drying,  thus  doing  away  with  all  stack  loss  of 
heat.  Many  machines,  of  different  designs,  have  recently 
come  to  the  attention  of  the  public.  At  present,  stove  dis- 
tillate, a  more  expensive  fuel  than  crude  oil,  must  be  used 
in  this  style  of  heating  device  to  avoid  bad  odors,  soot,  and 
the  like.  Whether  the  saving  in  fuel,  therefore,  counter- 
balances the  difference  in  price  of  distillate  and  of  crude 
oil  is  an  open  question.  If  it  does  not  more  than  equal 
this  difference,  the  saving  in  fuel  cost  is  more  apparent 
than  real. 

Stack  type  of  air  blast  drier. — Some  commercially  built 
evaporators  consist  of  several  stacks  or  tiers  of  trays  placed 
one  above  the  other  and  hot  air  is  forced  upward  through 
and  over  the  trays.  Whether  it  is  a  more  logical  type  than 
the  horizontal  blast  remains  to  be  seen. 

Continuous  evaporators  have  been  developed  success- 
fully for  vegetable  drying,  soap  chip  drying,  kelp  drying, 
and  the  like,  but  have  not  worked  out  well  for  fruits,  be- 
cause of  the  bruising  of  the  fruit  and  its  sticking  to  the 


354  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

belts  or  conveyers.  Essentially,  the  drier  consists  of  sev- 
eral superimposed  metal  cloth  conveyers  or  canvas  belts 
in  a  long  tunnel.  The  material  to  be  dried  enters  the 
tunnel  on  the  upper  belt,  traverses  the  length  of  the  tunnel, 
drops  to  the  second  belt,  and  so  on  until  it  may  travel  back 
and  forth  five  to  seven  times  at  such  a  speed  that  it  emerges 
from  the  lower  belt  dry.  If  such  a  machine  could  be  built 
successfully  for  fruits,  it  would  doubtless  greatly  reduce 
labor  costs.  It  has  possibilities  and  will  bear  further 
study  and  development. 

Distillation  types  of  evaporators. 

In  these  evaporators  the  water  is  distilled  from  the  fruit 
and  the  vapors  are  condensed. 

Atmospheric  pressure  machines. — In  this  type  the  drier 
is  not  placed  under  a  vacuum  but  is,  however,  rather 
tightly  closed  to  the  outside  air.  In  one  form  the  fruit 
travels  on  belts  over  steam  coils.  The  heat  from  the  coils 
drives  the  moisture  from  the  fruit.  The  vapor  passes 
over  water-cooled  pipes  and  is  condensed,  giving  an  area  of 
reduced  pressure  toward  which  the  vapors  continually 
flow.  In  another  type  the  air  and  gases  of  combustion 
from  a  furnace  heat  the  fruit  and  carry  the  moisture  to 
condensers.  This  evaporator  is  really  a  combination  of 
the  distillation  and  air  blast  forms. 

Vacuum,  driers. — Insofar  as  quality  of  dried  product  is 
concerned,  the  vacuum  drier  is  in  a  class  by  itself.  No 
other  drier  compares  with  it  in  its  ability  to  produce  dried 
fruits  of  fresh  flavor,  color  and  aroma.  There  are  two 
reasons  for  this,  one  being  the  practical  absence  of  air  in 
the  vacuum  drier,  a  fact  which  accounts  for  lack  of  oxida- 
tion, and  a  second  reason  for  its  superiority  is  the  low 


By-Products  of  the  Apple  Industry  355 

temperature  of  drying.  Temperatures  of  100  to  120  de- 
grees Fahrenheit  may  be  used  successfully  and  rapid  evap- 
oration obtained.  In  its  commercial  form,  the  drier  usu- 
ally consists  of  a  strong  boiler  plate  chamber  with  shelves 
for  trays  and  fitted  with  steam  pipes.  To  this  chamber  is 
connected  a  vacuum  pump  and  vapor  condenser.  The 
air  is  removed  by  the  pump,  the  water  is  driven  from  the 
fruit  by  the  steam  pipes  and  is  condensed  in  the  spray  or 
other  form  of  condenser.  A  continuous  vacuum  drier  has 
recently  been  built  and  is  a  most  remarkable  machine. 
Vacuum  driers  possess  great  possibilities,  probably  more 
than  any  other  evaporator  in  use,  but  have  not  been  gen- 
erally adopted  because  of  their  high  cost.  When  such  a 
machine  can  be  produced  at  a  moderate  price,  it  will  revo- 
lutionize present  ideas  of  evaporation. 

CANNING,  JELLY  MANUFACTURING 

The  canning  apple  industry  has  only  recently  attained 
considerable  importance.  This  phase  of  the  by-product 
Business  is  growing  very  rapidly  in  the  Shenandoah  dis- 
trict of  Virginia  and  West  Virginia  and  in  Adams  County, 
Pennsylvania.  Considerable  apples  are  also  canned  in 
New  England,  the  Middle  West  and  in  New  York.  The 
Northwest  has  also  taken  up  the  canning  industry,  but  in 
California,  apple  by-products  are  still  limited  largely  to 
dried  fruit.  In  various  parts  of  the  country,  advantage 
has  been  taken  of  existing  breweries  or  distilleries  in  con- 
verting them  into  canning  or  cider  plants.  Most  of  the 
work  in  the  big  canning  plants  is  done  by  machinery,  al- 
though it  is  usually  necessary  to  have  the  fruit  gone  over 
last  by  hand  help  in  order  to  detect  bits  of  core  or  pieces  of 
skin  left  near  the  calyx  or  stem.  The  process  of  canning 


356  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

is  much  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  other  fruits  and  it  is 
impossible  to  enter  into  detail  here. 

Apple  jelly  is  now  being  manufactured  on  a  consider- 
able commercial  scale.  It  is  often  made  by  adding  sugar 
to  cider,  100  pounds  of  cider  with  20  pounds  of  sugar  mak- 
ing about  40  pounds  of  jelly.  The  refuse  from  cider  and 
vinegar  mills  or  apple  pomace  is  often  employed  for  mak- 
ing jelly,  the  pectin  found  in  this  apple  pomace  being  the 
ingredient  used.  All  kinds  of  fancy  and  concentrated  by- 
products are  made  from  apples  and  the  scope  and  uses  of 
these  various  apple  by-products  promises  to  enlarge  greatly. 

CIDER   AND  VINEGAR 

Cider  and  vinegar  manufacture  still  absorb  most  of  the 
apples  used  for  by-products.  Enormous  quantities  are 
annually  made  into  cider  both  in  the  large  commercial 
cider  mills  and  in  the  smaller  mills  in  the  non-commercial 
regions.  Large  vinegar  plants  with  storage  capacity  for 
millions  of  gallons  have  been  established  in  Virginia, 
West  Virginia,  New  York,  New  England,  the  Central 
West  and  the  Northwest.  Considerable  difficulty  has  been 
encountered  with  the  prohibition  law  in  the  manufacture 
and  sale  of  cider,  but  it  seems  fairly  certain  that  rulings 
will  be  obtained  which  will  always  permit  the  manufac- 
ture of  sweet  cider.  In  some  of  the  large  cider  and  vine- 
gar plants  where  double  presses  are  used,  an  average  of 
over  9  gallons  of  cider  to  100  pounds  of  apples  is  obtained. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
COST  OF  PRODUCTION 

THOSE  regions  which  are  able  to  produce  and  market 
apples  at  the  lowest  relative  cost  will  survive  the  keenest 
competition.  Every  grower  instinctively  endeavors  to  put 
his  fruit 'on  the  market  as  economically  as  possible,  yet 
only  a  very  few  keep  accounts  of  sufficient  accuracy  to 
arrive  at  even  an  approximation  of  their  actual  cost  of 
production.  If  the  individual  grower  is  unable  to  give 
accurate  cost  production  figures,  it  becomes  apparent  that 
the  relative  cost  of  producing  apples  in  different  regions 
can  only  be  obtained  by  detailed  and  thorough  study  of 
the  items  and  operations. 

It  was  the  privilege  of  the  authors  to  study  the  cost  of 
producing  apples  in  eight  of  the  leading  apple  states  of 
this  country.  In  the  course  of  this  study,  extending 
through  several  seasons,  hundreds  of  detailed  orchard  sur- 
vey records  were  taken,  covering  every  item  and  operation 
which  would  influence  cost  of  production.  It  required 
only  a  brief  study  to  determine  the  lack  of  attention  which 
this  important  subject  was  receiving  at  the  hands  of  the 
average  grower.  Many  growers  would  starve  under  their 
present  lax  methods  of  management  if  they  were  wholly 
dependent  on  apples,  or  were  it  a  case  of  clean-cut  com- 
petition with  the  survival  of  the  fittest. 

The  manufacturer  can  not  long  survive  if  he  does  not 
give  close  attention  to  production  costs.  He  must  not  only 
357 


358  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

know  the  total  cost  of  production,  but  also  the  various 
items  of  which  it  is  comprised.  Only  by  knowing  these 
can  he  be  prepared  intelligently  to  lower  his  cost  items. 
The  same  principle  applies  to  the  apple-grower. 

An  important  point  in  such  a  study  is  to  determine 
which  operations  are  profitable  and  which  are  not.  A 
grower  should  not  attempt  to  lower  his  costs  blindly.  He 
must  be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  various  items  of 
expense  in  order  that  in  attempting  to  lower  cost  he  will 
not  cut  corners  in  the  wrong  direction  and  thereby  lower 
production.  To  neglect  fertilizing,  thinning,  spraying  or 
such  important  operations  would  be  a  case  of  lowering 
cost  in  the  wrong  direction.  It  would  usually  pay  to 
spend  more  on  some  of  these  operations  in  order  to  increase 
production,  and  thereby  lower  cost  of  production  a  unit. 
It  is  merely  a  case  of  spending  wisely.  Those  who  argue 
against  the  necessity  of  knowing  the  various  costs  of  pro- 
duction do  so  through  selfish  motives  or  through  ignor- 
ance. 

The  survival  of  any  fruit  district  depends  on  its  ability 
to  produce  fruit  in  competition  with  other  sections.  Cer- 
tain regions  by  virtue  of  their  extremely  favorable  location 
with  respect  to  soil,  climate  and  economic  conditions,  are 
firmly  established  and  will  always  remain  prominent  in 
the  commercial  apple  industry.  Other  regions  lacking 
some  of  the  necessary  qualifications  can  never  succeed. 
In  a  third  class  are  the  marginal  districts  which  lack  some 
of  the  more  desirable  qualifications,  and  yet  which  in  cer- 
tain years  compare  very  favorably  with  the  best  regions. 
For  example,  a  locality  subject  to  frost  might  in  some 
years  produce  a  very  profitable  crop  and  yet  over  a  period 


Cost  of  Production  359 

of  years  the  crop  failures  would  greatly  reduce  the  average 
returns. 

In  considering  the  marginal  regions  it  is  necessary  to 
recognize  that  in  a  period  of  low  prices  they  will  be  the 
first  to  suffer  in  the  process  of  elimination. 

Only  systematic  and  careful,  analysis  of  the  factors  en- 
tering into  and  influencing  the  cost  of  production  will 
indicate  which  region  will  survive  and  which  will  fail. 
Growers  have  made  profitable  returns  on  orchard  land  at 
$1,000  to  $2,000  an  acre  in  some  regions,  while  others  have 
failed  on  $100  land  in  other  places. 

Cost  production  varies  not  only  among  regions,  but 
among  individual  growers  of  the  same  district.  It  has 
been  found  that  it  costs  some  growers  50  per  cent  more  a 
barrel  or  box  to  harvest  their  crop  than  it  does  their  more 
alert  neighbors.  Some  operations,  such  as  spraying,  thin- 
ning and  proper  soil  management,  are  exceedingly  profit- 
able within  certain  limits.  Without  reliable  information, 
the  grower  can  not  tell  what  operations  are  paying  him 
best  on  the  investment.  Often  the  most  expensive  opera- 
tions are  the  most  profitable. 

Cost  production  figures  reveal  the  regions  which  are 
best  adapted  to  the  commercial  production  of  apples,  em- 
phasize the  value  and  relative  importance  of  different  cul- 
tural methods,  show  the  size  of  orchard  which  the  grower 
can  operate  most  economically,  indicate  the  most  profitable 
varieties,  and  in  short  reveal  all  of  the  best  principles  in 
orchard  selection  and  management. 

The  factors  which  enter  into  the  cost  of  production  are 
divided  into  labor  costs  and  costs  other  than  labor. 

The  labor  costs  include  both  man  and  horse  labor  and  are 


360 


The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 


further  subdivided  into  maintenance,  or  growing  labor 
costs,  and  handling  labor  cost.  The  growing  cost  includes 
all  the  labor  required  up  until  the  time  the  apples  are 
ready  to  pick,  while  the  handling  cost  includes  the  labor 
of  picking,  packing,  and  the  like,  until  the  apples  are  put 
in  storage  or  on  board  car. 

Costs  other  than  labor  take  in  material  and  fixed  costs. 
Material  costs  include  manure,  spray  material,  fertilizer, 
cover-crop  seed,  barrels,  boxes,  and  the  like.  The  fixed 
costs  comprise  all  overhead  charges,  such  as  interest  on 
investment,  taxes,  the  orchard's  share  of  insurance,  inter- 
est, depreciation  on  equipment,  and  apple  buildings. 

Of  these  main  groups  of  costs,  the  labor  is  most  likely 
to  be  the  limiting  factor  in  successful  production.  Fixed 
costs  are  particularly  important  in  the  Northwest  on 
account  of  high  land  values. 

The  various  cost  items  comprising  labor,  material,  and 
fixed  costs  are  enumerated  in  Table  XV. 

TABLE  XV.  —  COST  ITEMS  m  APPLE  PRODUCTION 


LABOR  COSTS 

COSTS  OTHER  THAN  LABOR 

Maintenance 

Handling 

Material 

Fixed 

Manuring 

Picking 

Fertilizer 

Taxes 

Pruning 

Hauling    barrels 

Manure 

Insurance 

Disposal  of  brush 

and    shocks 

Spray  material 

Equipment    charge 

Plowing 
Cultivating 

Hauling    to    pack- 
ing-house 

Box   or  barrel 
Labels,  paper,  etc. 

Apple    house    depre- 
ciation 

Sowing  mulch  crop 
Handling    mulch 

Packing 
Sorting 

Interest 
Water  rent 

crop 

Foreman 

Propping 

Nailing  or  head- 

Thinning 

ing 

Spraving 

Other  packing- 

Miscellaneous 

house  labor 

Haul   to    station 

It  is  not  enough  merely  to  learn  the  cost  items,  but  one 
should  go  further  and  study  the  influences  which  determine 


Cost  of  Production  361 

them.  Such  factors  as  availability  and  kind  of  labor, 
location  as  to  soil,  climate,  transportation,  size  of  orchard, 
size  and  type  of  farm,  varieties  and  most  of  all  yields, 
directly  influence  costs.  These  are  to  be  particularly  con- 
sidered before  they  become  established  in  any  given  re- 
gion, for  once  fixed  the  growers  may  find  it  impossible  to 
overcome  them  should  they  be  unfavorable. 

IMPORTANCE    OF    YIELDS 

Yield  is  the  all-important  item  in  determining  the  cost 
production  a  unit.  The  subject  of  yields  has  been  given 
separate  treatment  elsewhere  (see  Chapter  XVI)  but  is 
of  such  great  importance  as  to  require  particular  empha- 
sis. A  yield  of  200  barrels  an  acre  means  much  more 
profit  a  barrel  than  a  yield  of  100  barrels  an  acre.  Thus 
there  is  a  large  gain,  not  only  in  profit  to  the  acre,  but 
in  profit  a  barrel  or  box  as  well.  This  factor  is  over- 
looked by  most  growers.  Otherwise  more  effort  would  be 
expended  in  increasing  the  yield  of  commercial  fruit  in 
many  orchards.  It  is  vastly  more  profitable  to  have  a 
yield  of  200  barrels  to  the  acre  on  a  ten-acre  orchard  than 
100  barrels  to  an  acre  on  a  twenty-acre  orchard.  No 
grower,  and  especially  the  beginner,  should  attempt  to 
handle  more  acreage  than  he  can  take  sufficient  care  of  to 
insure  a  good  yield. 

The  importance  of  a  high  yield  is  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying table  which  applies  to  Hood  Eiver,  Oregon. 

It  is  seen  from  Table  XVI  that  the  acre  cost  varies 
directly  with  the  yield  while  the  box  cost  varies  inversely. 
For  instance,  in  the  case  of  orchards  with  a  yield  of  440 
boxes  to  the  acre,  there  is  an  acre  cost  of  $412.98  or  $.938 
a  box,  while  with  orchards  with  a  yield  of  115  boxes,  the 


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Cost  of  Production  363 

acre  cost  is  only  $223.58,  but  there  is  an  exceedingly  high 
cost  of  $1.94  a  box.  In  other  words,  the  lowest  yielding 
orchards  have  an  acre  cost  of  $189.40,  less  than  the  highest 
yielding  ones,  but  a  box  cost  of  $1.006  more.  A  saving 
of  $1.00  a  box  is  not  only  secured  by  the  highest  yield, 
but  the  profits  are  swelled  since  this  saving  of  $1.00  a  box 
applies  to  440  boxes  an  acre  instead  of  115.  By  compar- 
ing the  yield  in  boxes  in  the  first  column  with  the  total 
cost  a  box  in  the  last,  the  importance  of  yields  is  most 
forcibly  brought  out. 

Attention  has  been  drawn  to  the  fact  that  with  yields 
averaging  440  boxes  an  acre,  apples  are  produced  in  Hood 
River  at  a  cost  of  $1.006  a  box  less  than  when  the  yields 
were  only  115  boxes  an  acre.  The  handling  and  material 
costs  for  boxes,  and  the  like,  increased  almost  directly  with 
the  yield,  so  there  is  little  saving  on  a  box  in  these  items. 
However,  in  the  maintenance  costs  such  as  pruning,  spray- 
ing, thinning,  and  in  the  fixed  costs  such  as  interest  on 
investment,  the  greatest  saving  a  box  is  effected  for  fixed 
costs  an  acre,  remain  practically  the  same  for  all  yields. 

In  figuring  cost  of  production,  so  much  must  be  allowed 
for  interest  on  investment.  If  an  orchardist  has  an  in- 
vestment of  $1,000  an  acre,  interest  on  that  amount  at  7 
per  cent  would  be  $70.00  an  acre  a  year.  This  cost  dis- 
tributed over  440  boxes  would  be  about  16  cents  a  box; 
distributed  over  115  boxes  an  acre  this  cost  would  amount 
to  about  61  cents  a  box.  As  seen  from  the  above,  the  fixed 
costs  are  the  group  in  which  the  greatest  saving  is  effected 
by  increased  yields.  Fixed  costs  such  as  interest  on  in- 
vestment are  too  often  ignored  or  overlooked  by  growers 
who  do  not  realize  that  these  items  very  often  determine 
the  success  or  failure  of  an  orchard  enterprise.  The  fixed 


364  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

or  overhead  cost  an  acre  once  established  can  only  be  met 
successfully  by  increased  yields. 

Keturning  to  maintenance,  it  is  found  that  these  costs 
are  generally  somewhat  higher  an  acre  in  the  high  yield- 
ing than  in  the  low  yielding  orchards  due  to  more  thorough 
work,  although  it  is  obvious  that  a  dormant  spray  on  a 
low  yielding  orchard  is  about  as  expensive  as  that  on  a 
productive  planting.  The  maintenance  costs  on  the  high- 
est yielding  orchards  in  Hood  River  were  only  $18.00  more 
an  acre  than  on  the  lowest  ones,  and  yet  the  saving  a  box  in 
the  case  of  the  former  on  account  of  increased  yields  rep- 
resented 300  per  cent  when  figured  on  the  box  basis. 
The  foregoing  principles,  although  demonstrated  by  ex- 
amples from  Hood  River,  Oregon,  are  applicable  to  all 
regions  of  the  United  States,  whether  producing  boxed  or 
barreled  apples.  They  demonstrate  how  and  why  yields 
are  the  all  important  factor  in  successfully  lowering  cost  of 
production. 

INFLUENCE    OF   SIZE    OF    OECHAED 

The  size  of  the  orchard  is  another  important  factor  in 
determining  cost.  Given  the  same  acre  yield,  the  larger 
the  acreage  the  less  the  cost  of  production  a  unit.  Inves- 
tigations have  shown,  however,  that  beyond  a  certain 
acreage  the  yield  decreases  more  rapidly  than  does  the 
acre  cost  of  production,  thereby  making  the  cost  a  box 
or  barrel  higher  than  in  the  small  orchards.  In  other 
words,  the  decrease  in  the  maintenance,  fixed  and  material 
cost  an  acre  is  often  more  than  offset  by  the  decrease  in 
yield. 

In  Table  XVII,  which  refers  to  Hood  River,  a  slight  in- 
crease is  seen  in  cost  a  box  as  the  size  of  the  orchard  in- 


Cost  of  Production  365 

TABLE  XVII.— EFFECT  OF  SIZE  OF  ORCHARD  ON  COST  A  Box 


Yield 

Cos 

t. 

An  Acre. 

A  Box. 

5   and  under  

406 

$458 

$1  13 

5  to  10  inc  

331 

381 

1  15 

10  to  20  inc  

306 

369 

1  01 

20   and    over  

284 

340 

1  20 

creases,  which  is  due  to  the  yield  decreasing  as  the  size  of 
the  orchard  increases.  It  is  obvious,  however,  that  with 
the  same  yield  to  the  acre  in  the  larger  orchards,  the  cost 
a  box  would  be  very  much  less. 

In  this  connection  it  should  be  stated  that  in  certain  sec- 
tions the  economic  unit  of  orchards  which  can  safely  be 
managed  is  much  larger,  but  in  every  district  there  is  an 
economic  unit  beyond  which  nine  growers  out  of  ten  do 
not  make  as  great  a  success  as  the  small  grower.  From 
investigations  in  western  New  York,  the  economic  unit 
would  seem  to  be  from  fifteen  to  twenty  acres  when  the 
orchard  is  connected  with  diversified  farming.  There  are 
many  successful  and  very  progressive  growers  operating 
large  acreages,  but  these  are  specialists  as  a  rule.  Theo- 
retically, the  larger  the  orchard  the  larger  the  profit,  but 
this  does  not  always  work  out  in  practice.  Many  growers 
have  failed  in  the  apple  business  because  they  have  figured 
that  a  large  acreage  fairly  well  cared  for  would  produce 
more  apples  and  yield  more  profit  than  a  smaller  acreage 
more  intensively  looked  after  and  yielding  larger  annual 
crops.  The  most  profitable  sized  orchard,  from  the  stand- 
point of  cost  of  production,  will  vary  widely  in  different 
regions.  It  is  probably  the  smallest  in  the  irrigated  sec- 
tions of  the  Northwest  and  the  largest  in  such  regions  as 


366  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

Virginia.  The  size  should  be  determined  very  largely  by 
a  study  of  the  most  successful  orchards  in  any  particular 
community.  When  tractors  are  used,  the  orchards  should 
be  larger. 

Attention  must  be  given  to  the  prevailing  system  of  or- 
chard operation,  to  the  average  annual  yields  of  the  region, 
and  to  the  availability  of  labor.  It  is  obvious  under  irri- 
gated conditions  when  trees  make  rapid  growth,  when  the 
yields  are  heavy  and  when  such  operations  as  irrigation, 
thinning  and  the  like  are  intensively  practiced,  that 
smaller  acreages  are  advisable.  Probably  twenty  to 
twenty-five  acres  is  the  best  size  under  such  conditions. 

Western  JSfew  York  growers  have  found  that  a  bearing 
orchard  of  twelve  to  twenty-five  acres  fits  in  well  with  their 
system  of  diversified  farming.  Virginia  apple-growers, 
less  given  to  diversification,  find  thirty  to  forty  acres  an 
economic  unit,  and  many  succeed  with  much  larger  units. 
It  is  only  the  exceptional  grower  with  large  working  capital 
and  keen  business  ability  who  can  handle  successfully  a 
very  large  acreage. 

EFFECT    OF    SIZE    AND    TYPE    OF    FARM 

The  size  of  the  orchard  in  relation  to  its  effect  on  cost 
of  production  has  been  discussed,  but  very  often  the  or- 
chard is  only  one  part  of  a  more  or  less  general  farm. 
The  size  and  type  of  the  general  farm  may  reduce  profits 
from  the  apple  orchard  by  taking  away  labor  at  critical 
seasons,  or  may  increase  profits  by  supplying  labor  at  a  low 
cost.  A  general  farm  may  insure  diversification  and  a 
continuous  employment  and  profitable  distribution  of 
labor  throughout  the  season.  This  is  largely  a  problem  in 
farm  management. 


Cost  of  Production 


367 


An  interesting  chart  has  been  prepared  showing  the 
average  distribution  of  man  and  horse  labor  on  an  acre  of 
bearing  orchard  throughout  the  season  under  intensive 
treatment  (Fig.  10). 


FIG.  10. —  Showing  seasonal  distribution  of  man  and  horse  labor 
on  the  average  bearing  orchard  in  irrigated  regions. 

In  specialized  apple-growing,  there  are  always  long 
periods  of  enforced  idleness  for  both  man  and  horse  labor, 
but  particularly  the  latter.  If  plenty  of  day  help  is  avail- 
able at  reasonable  rates,  this  labor  distribution  is  not  so 
necessary,  but  when  help  is  hired  by  the  month,  \.  is  of 
vital  importance.  If  one  were  certain  of  high  fruit  prices 
at  all  times,  the  small,  intensified,  specialized  farm  would 
be  justifiable  and  even  advisable,  for  in  such  cases  a  high 
quality  of  fruit  is  usually  produced.  However,  there  has 
to  be  a  provision  for  the  periods  of  low  prices  and  this  can 
best  be  met  by  diversification.  That  most  fruit-farms  in 


368  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

the  Northwest  are  small  and  intensive  has  been  due  to  the 
system  of  land  development.  Cost  of  production  in  this 
region  is  only  kept  within  bounds  by  high  average  annual 
yields.  The  farms  of  the  East  are  more  diversified  and 
with  the  same  yield  as  in  the  Northwest  orchards  the  cost 
of  production  is  very  much  less,  due  not  only  to  a  less  fixed 
cost  an  acre,  but  to  a  lower  maintenance  cost  and  a  more 
seasonable  distribution  of  labor.  It  should  be  added,  how- 
ever, that  very  rarely  do  the  yields  in  eastern  orchards 
equal  those  to  the  acre  from  the  intensified  irrigated  or- 
chards of  the  West. 

The  size,  type  and  diversification  of  the  farm  will  de- 
pend largely  on  the  initial  cost  of  the  land,  the  adaptability 
of  other  profitable  crops,  and  acreage  which  has  proved  to 
be  the  best  economic  unit  in  any  particular  community. 
Conditions  vary  so  widely  in  different  districts  that  no 
specific  recommendations  can  be  made.  However,  the  ex- 
perience of  a  community  may  always  be  depended  on. 
In  every  established  community  there  are  certain  growers 
or  farmers  whose  success  and  methods  stand  out  above 
those  of  their  neighbors.  It  is  well  to  study  the  secret  of 
their  success  in  farm  management.  Care  should  be  taken 
not  to  be  misled  by  the  very  unusual  or  exceptional  farm 
which  employs  radically  different  methods.  A  particular 
farm  may  be  successful,  either  through  the  extraordinary 
ability  of  its  owner  or  through  peculiar  local  conditions  of 
labor  and  transportation,  or  on  account  of  a  special  mar- 
ket. This  success  may  not  always  be  duplicated.  A 

Under  eastern  conditions,  it  is  usually  better  to  depend 
on  a  fair-sized  farm,  and  endeavor  to  bring  it  above  the 
average,  than  to  count  on  a  very  small  acreage  cultivated 
intensively  or  on  a  very  large  acreage  which  requires 


Cost  of  Production  369 

skilled  farm  managerial  ability  when  its  size  exceeds  that 
of  the  economic  unit.  The  prospective  buyer  or  settler 
should  always  take  into  consideration  the  community  prac- 
tice and  the  existing  economic  conditions  before  investing 
large  sums  and  plunging  into  a  method  of  farm  manage- 
ment and  organization  wholly  foreign  to  that  region. 
Such  undertakings  sometimes  succeed,  but  in  most  cases 
they  have  failed  on  account  of  the  growers'  inability  to 
gauge  conditions  from  a  practical  instead  of  a  theoretical 
standpoint.  Diversification  is  generally  recommended  in 
lowering  cost  of  production,  but  it  should  not  be  prac- 
ticed to  the  neglect  of  the  orchard.  Under  neglect  the  or- 
chard usually  ceases  to  be  commercial  and  is  separated 
from  the  realm  of  commercial  fruit-growing. 

EFFECT  OF  CLIMATE  AND  SOIL  ON  COST  OF  PRODUCTION 

The  cost  of  production  is  affected  by  climate  and  soil 
insofar  as  these  factors  determine  the  yield  and  quality  of 
fruit  and  govern  cultural  methods.  In  humid  climates 
the  cost  of  spraying  is  usually  greater,  on  account  of 
fungous  troubles.  In  arid  climates,  however,  there  is  the 
added  cost  of  irrigation.  Some  soils  are  easily  cultivated 
and  adapted  to  tree  growth.  Others  are  poor  in  plant- 
food  and  difficult  of  cultivation.  Soil  has  such  a  very 
direct  bearing  on  yield  that  it  is  well  to  study  the  yield  on 
different  soils.  Only  average  yields  should  be  considered. 
For  example,  when  the  average  yield  an  acre  of  fifty  com- 
mercial orchards  in  one  district  is  fifty  barrels  below  that 
of  a  similar  number  of  commercial  orchards  in  another 
district,  it  is  usually  safe  to  assume  that  this  difference  is 
due  to  soil.  Often  this  may  be  overcome  by  scientific  and 
intelligent  treatment,  although  no  other  test  is  quite  so 


370  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

indicative  of  the  adaptibility  of  apples  to  any  certain  re- 
gion as  the  average  yield.  It  is  not  more  difficult  to  rise 
above  the  average  in  a  naturally  high  yielding  community 
than  in  a  low  yielding  one,  and  the  grower  ordinarily 
would  better  strive  to  improve  a  good  soil  than  to  build 
up  a  poor  one.  The  question  of  soil  influences  cost  of  pro- 
duction so  greatly  as  to  warrant  the  most  careful  consider- 
ation. 

Climate  determines  in  a  broad  way  where  apples  may 
be  grown.  Apples  are  confined  to  the  temperate  zone. 
In  the  United  States,  the  irrigated  valleys  of  the  North- 
west, the  northern  states,  and  the  higher  portion  of  the 
southern  states  are  best  adapted,  and  yet  throughout  these 
regions  frost  does  enormous  damage  to  the  apple  crop  every 
year.  There  are  certain  favored  sections  which  frost  sel- 
dom damages,  such  as  the  Wenatchee  Valley  of  Washing- 
ton and  certain  limited  sections  in  the  East.  Freedom 
from  frost  damage  means  greater  annual  yields  and  con- 
sequently more  profit  and  less  cost  of  production. 

INFLUENCE    OF    VAEIETIES 

Varieties  influence  cost  of  production,  inasmuch  as  some 
are  more  easily  grown  than  others,  and  there  is  a  wide  dif- 
ference in  yield  in  orchards  of  the  same  age  and  under 
like  conditions  of  management.  Such  varieties  as  Esopus, 
Arkansas  Black,  Winter  Banana  and  Xewtown  are  more 
costly  to  grow  and  produce  than  Ben  Davis,  Winesap, 
Baldwin,  Greening  and  York.  Ben  Davis,  although  one 
of  the  lowest  priced  apples  in  the  market,  is  one  of  the 
heaviest  yielders  and  is  no  doubt  generally  produced  at  a 
lower  cost  than  any  other  commercial  apple.  The  follow- 
ing table  shows  the  relative  cost  of  production  a  unit  of  bar- 


Cost  of  Production 


371 


rel  or  box  of  various  commercial  varieties.     It  is  based  on 
cost  production  studies  conducted  in  the  leading  apple 

states : 

TABLE  XVIII.—  COST  OF  PRODUCTION  A  UNIT  OR  BARREL  OR  Box 


High  Cost. 

Medium  Cost. 

Low  Cost. 

1.  Tompkins  King 

1.  Hubbardston 

1.  Ben  Davis 

2.  Mclntosh 

2.  Fameuse 

2.  York  Imperial 

3.  Yellow  Newtown 

3.  Winesap 

3.  Rome  Beauty 

4.  Arkansas 

4.  Stayman 

4.  Tolman  Sweet 

5.  Winter  Banana 

5.  Black  Twig 

5.  Limbertwig 

6.  Esopus     (Spitzen- 

6.  Baldwin 

6.  Yates 

burg) 

7.  R.  I.  Greening 

7.  Yellow  Bellflower 

7.  Northern  Spy 

8.  Gravenstein 

8.  Duchess 

8.  Grimes 

9.  Jonathan 

9.  Wealthy 

9.  White  Pearmain 

10.  Delicious 

10.  Fallawater 

10.  Gilliflower 

11.  Maiden  Blush 

11.  Smith's  Cider 

11.  Lady  Apple 

12.  Missouri  Pippin 

12.  Willow  Twig 

12.  Bonum 

Most  of  the  varieties  included  under  high  cost  of  pro- 
duction are  of  high  quality.  Most  of  them  are  produced 
only  in  limited  quantities,  due  either  to  the  inherent  deli- 
cacy of  the  trees  or  their  light  yielding  tendencies.  All 
command  a  high  price  in  the  market. 

All  those  given  under  medium  cost  are  widely  grown 
and  are  generally  good  yielders.  The  column  under  low 
cost  includes  many  highly  important  commercial  varieties, 
but  most  of  these  are  of  low  dessert  quality.  It  seems 
to  be  a  rule  that,  in  general,  the  low  dessert  quality  apples 
are  the  highest  producers  and  consequently  the  lowest  in 
cost  of  production,  while  the  high  quality  apples  are  high- 
est in  cost  of  production  and  lowest  in  yield.  It  will  be 
noted  that  there  are  exceptions  to  this  in  all  the  columns 
and  in  the  case  of  some  varieties  that  are  not  recorded. 
Many  of  the  high  cost  varieties  are  late  bearers. 


372  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

ACCESSIBILITY    TO    MARKET 

Distance  and  accessibility  to  shipping  point  are  factors 
which  have  an  important  bearing  on  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion. For  example,  in  many  sections  of  Virginia  and  Car- 
olina, apples  are  produced  fairly  cheap  on  the  trees,  but  a 
long  haul,  often  of  ten  to  twenty  miles  over  rough  roads, 
adds  very  materially  to  the  cost  of  delivery,  f.  o.  b.  ship- 
ping point.  I^ot  infrequently  a  charge  of  forty  or  more 
cents  a  barrel  must  be  made  to  cover  the  cost  of  hauling 
apples  to  the  railroad  station.  Usually  such  orchards  are 
situated  on  low-priced  land  and  have  a  low  overhead 
charge  or  fixed  cost.  For  comparison,  in  Hood  Eiver, 
Oregon,  the  fixed  cost  is  practically  $.31  a  box,  or  $.93  a 
barrel,  while  in  the  mountains  of  Virginia  and  Carolina 
the  fixed  cost  is  often  not  more  than  one-tenth  of  this 
amount. 

While  cost  of  production  usually  includes  only  the  cost 
f.  o.  b.  at  loading  station,  to  this  figure  should  also  be  added 
the  cost  of  delivering  the  fruit  to  the  consuming  markets 
in  order  properly  to  compare  one  region  with  another. 

COST    OF    MATERIALS 

The  cost  of  materials  is  one  of  the  direct  factors  to  be 
considered  in  cost  production.  The  material  cost,  how- 
ever, does  not  vary  greatly  in  different  regions  and  there- 
fore is  scarcely  a  limiting  factor.  It  is  important  to  rec- 
ognize, however,  that  the  price  of  spray  material,  fertili- 
zer, barrels  and  boxes  may  be  lowered  materially  by 
cooperation  and  judicious  purchasing.  Examples  in  low- 
ering the  costs  by  these  methods  may  be  found  in  the  apple 
districts  of  the  Xorthwest. 


Cost  of  Production  373 

LABOR    AND    COST    PRODUCTION 

Farm  and  orchard  labor  varies  greatly  in  the  different 
sections  of  the  country  with  respect  to  its  efficiency,  intelli- 
gence, and  the  rate  of  wage  paid.  While  daily  wage  rates 
may  be  high,  they  may  be  more  economical  in  the  end,  due 
to  greater  efficiency.  The  following  table  shows  the 
amount  of  apples  which  the  average  laborer  picks  in  a  full 
working  day  in  several  of  the  leading  fruit  regions.  This 
refers  to  day  labor  unless  otherwise  stated.  In  the  fall  of 
1919,  however,  picking  by  the  box  system  came  into  use 
in  the  Northwest  and  many  under  this  system  averaged 
150  boxes  a  day.  Picking  by  the  box,  however,  is  not 
always  satisfactory  as  it  promotes  carelessness  and  conse- 
quent damage  to  the  quality  of  the  fruit. 

TABLE  XIX.— AMOUNT  OF  APPLES  PICKED  IN  ONE  DAY 

Yakima,  Washington   60  loose  boxes,  20  barrels. 

Wenatchee,  Washington    75     "         "      25       " 

Hood  River,  Oregon 60     "         "       20       " 

Watsonville,  California  54     "        "       17       " 

Western  Colorado 57     "        "       19      " 

Western  New  York  (day  labor) 20 

Western  New  York   (contract  labor  by  barrel) 25 

Piedmont  District  of  Virginia 10 

Southern  Ohio    11 

The  orchards  in  the  Piedmont  district  of  Virginia  are 
usually  on  hillsides  and  for  that  reason  picking  is  more 
difficult.  Furthermore,  the  question  of  yields  is  involved. 
However,  it  may  be  seen  from  the  above  that  it  is  not  im- 
possible for  cheap  labor  to  be  the  most  expensive.  There 
is  as  much  complaint  over  labor  costs  in  the  South  as  in 
any  other  part  of  the  country.  In  regions  of  general 
farming,  labor  is  usually  cheaper  than  in  specialized  sec- 
tions since  it  can  be  employed  profitably  for  a  longer 


374 


The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 


season.  General  farming  permits  the  employment  of 
month  labor  at  a  lower  wage  than  must  be  paid  for  day 
labor.  On  the  other  hand,  labor  in  general  farming  com- 
munities is  not  likely  to  be  as  skilled  as  where  apple-grow- 
ing is  the  most  important  industry.  The  efficiency  of 
labor  is  an  important  factor  in  the  cost  of  production. 


ORCHARD    MAINTENANCE 

Labor  is  the  most  important  item  in  orchard  mainte- 
nance, which  involves  such  operations  as  pruning,  culti- 
vating, thinning  and  spraying.  It  will  be  seen  from  the 
following  table  that  maintenance  labor  costs  vary  widely 
in  different  regions  according  to  the  intensity  of  the  cul- 
tural practices. 

TABLE  XX 
MAINTENANCE  LABOR  COST  IN  SEVEN  IMPORTANT  APPLE  REGIONS 


Region. 

Hours  per  Acre. 

Costi 
of 
labor. 

Packed 
Yield 
per 
acre. 

Cost 
per 
bushel. 

Man. 

Horse. 

Western  New  York  

77 
214 
230 
142 
177 
161 
89 

63 
91 
96 
82 
72 
76 
54 

$49.70 
134.30 
143.80 
88.51 
110.10 
103.30 
60.70 

252  bu. 
432  bx. 
593  " 
320  " 
337  " 
284  " 
226  " 

$.197 
.311 
.242 
.277 
.327 
.364 
.269 

Yakima  Valley  

Wenatchee   Valley  

Hood    River 

Southern   Idaho  

Western   Colorado  
California  (Watsonville  Dist.) 

i  Man  labor  rates  in  these  regions  varied  from  40  to  50  cents  an 
hour  while  horse  labor  was  figured  at  about  30  cents  an  hour. 

The  above  table  is  a  summary  of  the  maintenance  labor 
costs  on  approximately  700  commercial  apple  orchards  in 
various  parts  of  the  United  States.  Detailed  orchard 


Cost  of  Production  375 

records  and  yields  covering  a  period  of  five  years  are  the 
basis  for  these  figures  which  reveal  some  very  surprising 
facts.  Particular  attention  is  called  to  the  variation  in 
amount  of  man  and  horse  hours  expended  in  maintaining 
orchards  in  different  regions.  The  amount  of  labor  does 
not  change  materially  and  is,  therefore,  a  better  guide  than 
labor  costs  which  do  vary  with  labor  rates.  Maintenance 
labor  is  that  expended  in  the  following  operations:  Man- 
uring, pruning,  disposal  of  brush,  plowing,  cultivating, 
sowing  mulch  crop,  handling  mulch  crop,  propping,  thin- 
ning, spraying,  irrigation  and  miscellaneous. 

Western  New  York  growers  expend  annually  only  7Y 
man  hours  and  63  horse  hours  an  acre  in  these  operations. 
Apple-growers  in  Wenatchee  do  not  use  many  more  horse 
hours  to  the  acre,  but  expend  three  times  the  amount  of 
man  labor  an  acre  than  is  given  for  western  New  York 
orchards.  That  such  intensive  methods  are  profitable  is 
shown  by  the  increased  yields  and  high  marketable  quality 
of  fruit  produced.  After  spending  $94  an  acre  more  in 
maintenance,  the  Wenatchee  grower,  by  increased  yields, 
is  able  to  keep  his  maintenance  costs  at  a  figure  only  4^ 
cents  a  bushel  greater  than  the  New  York  grower. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  amount  of  horse  labor 
to  the  acre  does  not  vary  greatly  in  the  different  regions, 
while  the  man  labor  varies  300  per  cent,  being  greater 
in  the  Northwest  where  such  intensive  practices  as  thin- 
ning and  irrigation  require  man  labor,  but  little  or  no 
horse  labor. 

Cost  of  pruning  and  brush  disposal. 

The  following  table  will  serve  to  show  pruning  practices 
and  costs  in  several  important  regions : 


376 


The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 


TABLE  XXI 

PRUNING  AND  BRUSH  DISPOSAL  —  KELATIVE  TIME  AND  COSTS  IN 
DIFFERENT  KEGIONS 


Region. 

Man 
hrs.  per 
acre 

Horse 
hrs.  per 
acre 

Cost 
of 
labor 

Cost 
of 

bushel 

Trees 

dpae; 

Western  New  York  

31 

6 

$1420 

06 

14 

Yakima 

64 

11 

35  30 

08 

14 

Wenatchee    
Hood    River.   . 

52 
30 

14 

7 

30.20 
15  60 

.05 
.05 

19 
30 

Southern    Idaho  
Colorado    ...            

58 
62 

9 
11 

31.70 
3430 

.09 
12 

13 
14 

California    (Watsonville  Dist.) 

31 

7 

17.60 

.08 

23 

In  all  apple  regions,  pruning  usually  represents  at 
least  one-fourth  of  all  labor  expended  up  until  the  time 
of  picking.  Although  the  northwestern  growers  spend 
more  labor  to  the  acre  in  pruning,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  there  are  nearly  twice  as  many  trees  to  the  acre  as  in 
such  regions  as  western  New  York.  Cost  production 
studies  reveal  that  the  importance  of  pruning  is  generally 
recognized.  The  amount  of  pruning  necessary  varies 
widely  with  the  variety.  In  the  Hood  River  Valley,  the 
Yellow  Newtown  and  Esopus  Spitzenburg  which  predom- 
inate in  this  region  do  not  require  nearly  as  much  pruning 
labor  as  the  more  vigorous  or  rampant  growing  varieties. 

Pruning  cost  a  bushel  of  marketable  fruit  produced 
averages  from  5  to  8  cents,  of  which  about  2  cents  is  rep- 
resented by  the  cost  of  handling  brush. 

Soil  management. 

Different  systems  of  soil  management  make  the  cost  of 
this  operation  exceedingly  variable.  One  would  imagine 
with  the  general  intensive  cultural  methods  of  the  North- 
west that  soil  management  would  represent  a  considerable 
cost  item  in  this  region.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  value 


Cost  of  Production  377 

of  the  shade  crop  usually  grown  in  the  orchard  more  than 
pays  for  the  cost  of  soil  management  plus  irrigation  in 
the  Northwest.  Under  the  old  systems  of  clean  cultiva- 
tion, the  northwest  grower  expended  from  $15  to  $20  an 
acre  in  soil  management.  By  growing  alfalfa  as  a  shade 
crop  and  taking  off  one  or  two  cuttings,  he  makes  about 
enough  to  pay  soil  management  costs.  Some  of  the  best 
authorities  maintain  that  in  taking  off  two  or  more  cut- 
tings of  alfalfa,  the  grower  is  depleting  soil  fertility.  It 
is  to  be  questioned  whether  it  is  advisable  to  remove  more 
than  one  cutting. 

For  eastern  and  middle  western  orchards,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  those  in  sod  mulch,  soil  management  involves 
about  the  same  amount  of  labor  to  the  acre  as  does  pruning, 
since  about  25  per  cent  of  all  the  labor  spent  in  growing 
apples  up  until  harvest  is  in  cultivation  or  other  labor  on 
the  soil.  Western  New  York  growers  expend  about  13 
man  hours  and  28  horse  hours  to  the  acre  in  soil  manage- 
ment. 

The  greatest  saving  in  sod  mulch  orchards  in  the  East 
is  in  the  absence  of  any  expense  for  soil  treatment.  How- 
ever, this  saving  is  usually  more  than  lost  in  decreased 
yields. 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  the  number  of  acres  one  man 
and  team  will  cover  a  day  with  the  ordinary  cultivation 
tools. 
TABLE  XXII.— ACRES  A  DAY  FOR  ONE  MAN  AND  Two  HORSES 


Irrigated 
Regions. 

Eastern 
Regions. 

Plow                                                            .... 

1.5 

2 

Disc                                               

5.5 

7 

Spring-tooth                                 

6.5 

10 

Spike-tooth                                         

10. 

12 

378 


The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 


The  northwestern  grower  covers  a  less  number  of  acres 
a  day  with  each  cultivating  tool  than  does  the  eastern 
grower.  This  is  partly  explained  by  the  fact  that  there 
are  practically  twice  as  many  trees  to  the  acre  in  the  irri- 
gated sections,  thus  necessitating  more  care  than  in  the 
East.  The  orchards  in  the  irrigated  sections  are  often 
inter-planted  with  shade  crops  as  alfalfa,  and  in  such  cases 
operations  like  plowing  and  discing  necessarily  require 
considerable  time  and  labor. 

Thinning. 

The  practice  of  thinning  varies  so  greatly  that  a  study 
of  the  extent  and  cost  of  this  operation  in  several  different 
regions  will  be  of  particular  interest. 

TABLE  XXIII. —  THINNING  PRACTICES  AND  COSTS 


Region. 

Yield 
per 
acre. 

Man 
hrs.  per 
acre. 

Cost 
per 
acre. 

Cost 
per 
bushel. 

Western  New  York  . 

252  bus 

4 

$1  60 

$  0063 

Yakima    

432  bxs. 

49 

24.50 

.0567 

Wenatchee    

593    " 

53 

26.50 

0447 

Hood    River 

320    " 

25 

11  25 

0352 

Southern   Idaho  
Western   Colorado 

337    " 

284    " 

47 
18 

23.50 
9.00 

.0697 
.0317 

California    (Watsonville  Dist.)... 

226    " 

14 

7.00 

.0310 

A  sharp  contrast  is  brought  out  when  the  average  amount 
of  thinning  in  such  regions  as  western  New  York  is  com- 
pared with  the  heavy  thinning  in  the  Northwest  in  such 
districts  as  Wenatchee  Valley.  The  average  New  York 
grower  expends  only  4  hours  an  acre  in  thinning  his  apple 
crop.  The  average  Wenatchee  grower  devotes  53  hours 
labor  to  the  acre  in  thinning,  but  when  the  cost  of  this 


Cost  of  Production  3?'9 

labor  is  distributed  over  the  average  yield,  it  amounts  to 
less  than  5  cents  a  box.  When  one  considers  the  higher 
annual  yields  and  the  greatly  improved  quality  directly 
due  to  thinning,  it  may  readily  be  seen  that  to  omit  thin- 
ning is  to  cut  costs  in  the  wrong  direction. 

From  the  standpoint  of  economy,  the  writers  are  con- 
vinced that  not  only  will  thinning  improve  quality,  but 
that  it  will  actually  lower  cost  of  production  by  increasing 
annual  yields. 

Spraying. 

The  cost  of  spraying  is  discussed  in  Chapter  X. 

HARVESTING    COSTS 

Harvesting  costs  include  all  the  labor  and  material  costs 
incident  to  picking,  packing  and  delivering  fruit  to  the 
station.  These  represent  from  40  to  50  per  cent  of  the 
cost  of  producing  apples.  It  might  be  stated  here  that 
fixed  costs,  such  as  interest  on  investment,  represent  about 
20  to  25  per  cent,  while  maintenance  costs  for  such  opera- 
tions as  thinning  and  spraying,  represent  from  25  to  30 
per  cent  of  the  total  cost  of  production. 

In  Table  XXIV  is  shown  the  amount  of  labor  neces- 
sary for  harvesting  crops  in  several  different  regions  and 
also  the  cost  a  bushel  for  labor  and  material  incident  to 
harvesting.  It  is  seen  that  all  harvesting  costs  make  up 
from  45  to  50  per  cent  of  the  total  cost  of  production. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  labor  cost  for  harvesting 
boxed  apples  is  but  little  greater  than  for  barreled  apples, 
%hile  five  years  ago  it  was  nearly  100  per  cent  greater. 
Labor  rates  have  increased  more  proportionately  in  the 
barrel  apple  regions  than  in  the  box  sections.  It  now  costs 
most  barrel  sections  nearly  25  cents  a  barrel  for  picking. 


380 


The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 


TABLE  XXIV.— TOTAL  HARVESTING  COST 
(Cost  refers  to  marketable  fruit  only.) 


Region. 

Yield 
per 
acre. 

Labor 
cost  per 
packed 
bushel. 

Labor  & 
Material 
cost  per 
packed 
bushel. 

Per  cent, 
of  total 
cost  of 
produc- 
tion. 

Western  New  York  

252  bus. 

$.2235 

$4402 

50 

Yakima 

432  bx» 

2775 

5600 

47 

Wenatchee    
Hood    River 

593    " 
320    " 

.2775 
2801 

.5600 
5251 

48 
45 

Southern   Idaho  
Western    Colorado  
California   (Watsonville  Dist.) 

337    " 

284    " 
226    " 

.2775 
.2775 
.2650 

.5600 
.5600 
.5050 

49 
45 

48 

Other  harvesting  and  packing  labor,  aside  from  the  pick- 
ing, averages  about  1.8  barrels  to  a  man  an  hour.  This  is 
the  case  in  New  York,  the  Middle  West,  and  commercial 
sections  of  Virginia.  The  western  grower  figures  that  he 
is  repaid  for  any  extra  cost  in  handling  and  packing  his 
crop  by  increased  returns  for  his  fruit.  The  secret  of  his 
success  on  the  market  has  been  due  to  this  intensive  effort. 

Table  XXV  shows  fixed  costs,  including  charges  for 
interest  on  investment,  for  several  important  apple  regions. 

The  fixed  costs,  as  before  stated,  comprise  those  annual 

TABLE  XXV.— TOTAL  FIXED  COSTS 


Region. 

Yield  _ 
per 
Acre. 

Interest  charge 

Total  Fixed  Cost 

%  Total 
Cost  of 
Produc- 
tion. 

per  acre. 

per  bu. 

per  acre. 

per  bu. 

Western  New  York. 
Yakima  
Wenatchee  
Hood  River 

252  bus. 
432    " 
593    " 
320    " 
337    " 
284    " 

226    " 

$26. 
86. 
154. 
79. 
49. 
52. 

41. 

$0.10 
.20 
.26 
.25 
.15 
.18 

.18 

$34. 
114. 
187. 
99. 
63. 
72. 

49. 

$0.13 
.26 
.32 
.31 
.19 
.25 

.22 

15 
2  >•? 

27 
26 
16 
20 

21 

Southern    Idaho.  .  .  . 
Western    Colorado.  .  . 
California  — 
(Watsonville  Dist.) 

Cost  of  Production  381 


N 


charges,  the  acre  cost  being  little  affected  by  the  size  of  the 
crop.  Fixed  costs  include  taxes,  depreciation,  insurance, 
and  interest  on  investment.  Of  these,  interest  on  invest- 
ment is  by  far  the  most  important.  This  item  alone 
reaches  $154  annually  in  the  Wenatchee  Valley,  a  cost 
which  is  a  good  price  for  land  in  many  sections.  Western 
New  York  had  an  interest  cost  an  acre  of  only  one-sixth 
this  amount.  The  high  yields  of  the  Wenatchee  Valley, 
however,  tend  to  overcome  this  high  interest  charge.  Fig- 
ured on  the  bushel  basis,  the  interest  charge  at  Wenatchee 
was  26  cents  a  bushel  as  compared  with  10  cents  a  bushel 
in  New  York  state.  This  fixed  cost  has  not  increased  in 
most  apple  sections  since  1914,  while  labor  rates  have  ad- 
vanced about  100  per  cent  and  cost  of  material  rose  sharply 
in  1920. 

Hood  River,  Oregon,  has  an  annual  acre  interest  charge 
of  $75  less  than  that  for  the  Wenatchee  Valley.  Return- 
ing to  the  interest  cost  a  box,  it  is  seen  that  Hood  River  is 
charged  with  25  cents  a  box  as  compared  with  only  26 
cents  for  Wenatchee.  This  serves  to  show  very  emphati- 
cally that  high  costs  a  box  or  barrel  are  to  be  considered 
irrespective  of  fixed  costs  an  acre,  for  yields  directly  de- 
termine fixed  cost  a  box  or  barrel. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  important  to  remember  that  any 
saving  in  fixed  cost  is  direct.  This  may  be  effected  in  the 
judicious  purchase  of  land.  It  is  always  poor  economy 
to  grow  apples  on  poor  land,  but  at  the  same  time  orchards 
are  over-capitalized  in  many  regions  and  the  grower  of 
limited  means  will  sometimes  find  his  fixed  cost  so  high 
in  a  series  of  poor  years  that  he  will  not  be  able  to  sur- 
vive the  hard  times.  It  should  be  repeated  that  once  these 
fixed  costs  to  an  acre  are  established,  they  can  not  be  low- 


382  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

ered  and  can  only  be  met  successfully  by  increasing  and 
maintaining  yields. 

Much  more  detail  might  be  entered  into  in  a  discussion 
of  the  cost  of  production  in  the  various  regions.  It  is  con- 
stantly changing  with  the  price  of  labor  and  materials.  It 
is  important  to  cut  out  all  unnecessary  expense  in  connec- 
tion with  the  orchard  and  pay  strict  attention  to  yield  of 
high  quality  fruit.  However,  expenses  to  the  acre  should 
not  be  spared  if  it  decreases  expense  a  box  or  barrel.  Al- 
most universally  the  grower  who  spends  most  on  his  or- 
chard when  invested  in  a  systematic  way,  such  as  proper 
pruning,  fertilizing,  thinning  and  spraying,  produces 
apples  at  a  less  cost  a  box  or  barrel  than  the  grower  who 
tries  to  save  dimes  by  lack  of  sufficient  attention  to  the 
orchard  and  loses  dollars  by  lack  of  a  good  yield. 

When  selecting  an  orchard  or  site,  it  is  extremely  im- 
portant that  probable  cost  of  production  be  studied  and 
taken  into  account.  The  limiting  factor  which  determines 
the  success  or  failure  of  a  region  may  be  climate,  soil, 
transportation,  topography,  labor,  cost,  of  materials  or  one 
of  many  other  things.  Above  all,  it  is  most  important 
to  remember  that  large  annual  yields  of  high  quality  fruit 
will  overcome  most  unfavorable  factors.  In  fact,  high 
yields  are  in  themselves  proof  that  most  factors  are  either 
favorable  or,  if  unfavorable,  may  be  overcome.  Yields 
should  be  based  on  an  average  of  at  least  five  years.  Mis- 
leading statements  as  regarding  yields  are  often  wilfully 
made  in  various  commercial  publications  for  advertising 
purposes.  Acreage  averages  should  be  used  and  not  tree 
averages.  One  is  likely  to  draw  erroneous  conclusions 
from  the  performance  of  individual  trees. 

If  cost  production  figures  are  based  on  the  average  an- 


Cost  of  Production  383 

nual  yields  for  bearing  commercial  orchards  in  a  com- 
munity, the  results  will  indicate  the  relative  success  of  the 
average  grower.  By  intelligent  handling,  the  progressive 
grower  usually  finds  no  difficulty  in  rising  above  the  com- 
munity average.  If  the  average  man  is  making  a  good 
profit,  the  exceptional  grower  should  made  a  still  better 
one. 

Table  XXVI  is  a  summary  of  all  costs  and  is  based  on 
1919  conditions.  The  cost  a  box  varies  from  $1.05  in 
California  to  $1.25  in  Colorado.  The  northwest  irri- 
gated regions  vary  in  cost  of  production  from  $1.15  to 
$1.20  a  box.  Average  western  New  York  costs  amount 
to  $2.62  a  barrel  f.  o.  b.  All  these  costs  are  based  on  yields 
of  marketable  fruit.  Cull  apples  are  not  credited.  How- 
ever, as  these  orchards  represent  those  producing  fruit 
for  the  commercial  box  or  barrel  market,  the  percentage 
of  cull  fruit  is  small.  In  fact,  the  average  annual  credit 
from  the  cull  fruit  has  been  found  in  most  instances  prac- 
tically to  balance  the  annual  orchard  depreciation.  These 
two  more  or  less  variable  and  uncertain  factors,  may,  in 
general  then,  be  said  about  to  balance. 

Orchard  heating  is  another  cost  which  sometimes  occurs 
in  certain  regions  but  this  cannot  be  given  consideration 
as  it  is  now  seldom  practiced  in  apple  orchards,  and  is 
very  generally  discredited.  The  high  cost  has  been  found 
to  make  it  prohibitive  and  unprofitable  in  most  cases  and 
particularly  in  western  Colorado  where  at  one  time  it  was 
widely  practiced. 

CONCLUSIONS 

1.  Cost  of  production  in  any  region  depends  primarily 
on  the  yield  of  marketable  fruit.  It  varies  inversely  with 


384 


The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 


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Cost  of  Production  385 

yields ;  the  higher  the  yield,  the  lower  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion a  unit. 

2.  Maintenance   practices   such    as    spraying,    pruning 
and  cultivating,   greatly   influence  yield.     As  a  general 
rule,  increase  in  maintenance  costs  to  the  acre  means  a 
decrease  in  cost  a  box  or  barrel.     It  is  poor  economy  to 
neglect  orchard  practices  which  are  necessary  to  high  yields 
of  good  quality  fruit. 

3.  The    average    commercial    grower    in    the    United 
States  could  effect  a  considerable  saving  in  his  cost  of  pro- 
duction if  he  spent  more  time  in  thinning  his  fruit.     At 
the  present  time  only  growers  in  the  Pacific  Northwest 
thin  extensively.     Even  there  this  operation  could  be  prac- 
ticed more  systematically  with  profit. 

4.  Growers  with  mature  orchards  or  those  reaching  ma- 
turity can  in  many  cases  greatly  increase  annual  yields 
and  thereby  lower  cost  of  production,  if  they  will  give  more 
attention  to  soil  management  and  fertilization.     No  phase 
of  fruit-growing  is  of  more  importance  than  the  mainte- 
nance of  soil  fertility. 

5.  The  relative  acre  value  of  apple  orchards  should  be 
determined  largely  by  average  annual  yields.     Low  yields 
with  excessive  fixed  costs  limit  successful  production  in 
many  widely  advertized  regions. 

6.  The  cost  of  production  is  exceedingly  variable  de- 
pending so  largely  on  yield,  labor  rates  and  overhead  costs, 
all  of  which  are  so  variable  that  no  definite  figure  which 
will  hold  can  be  given.     However,  it  has  been  found  that 
under  1919  conditions  box  apples  could  not  be  put  in  the 
car  for  less  than  $1.20  a  box,  while  barreled  apples  ordi- 
narily averaged  about  $2.50  a  barrel,  f.  o.  b.,  in  cost  of  pro- 
duction.    The  cost  of  boxes  was  figured  at  22  cents,  of 


386  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

barrels  60  cents.  Labor  was  figured  at  40  to  50  cents 
the  hour  and  materials  were  charged  at  the  1919  rate. 
Changes  should  be  made  accordingly.  Increased  price  of 
packages  brought  the  1920  cost  of  production  of  boxed  ap- 
ples to  about  $1.30  and  of  barreled  apples  to  about  $3.50. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
VARIETIES  OF  APPLES 

THE  proper  selection  of  varieties  should  be  given  careful 
consideration  by  the  commercial  apple-grower  since  this 
may  determine  the  success  or  failure  of  his  enterprise. 
Hundreds  of  varieties  of  apples  are  grown  in  the  United 
States  and  many  hundreds  of  others  are  described  in 
pomological  lists.  It  is  interesting  to  note,  however,  how 
relatively  few  varieties  make  up  the  commercial  apple 
production  of  the  United  States.  Twelve  varieties  repre- 
sent nearly  80  per  cent  of  the  commercial  apple  crop  of 
the  United  States.  Such  a  limited  list  would  probably 
include  Ben  Davis,  Baldwin,  Rhode  Island  Greening, 
Winesap,  Jonathan,  Northern  Spy,  Yellow  Newtown, 
York  Imperial,  Delicious,  Stayman,  Grimes  and  Wealthy. 
These  varieties  are  not  of  recent  origin,  but  are  almost 
without  exception  old  and  well  established  sorts  known  to 
the  commercial  grower  for  generations. 

Baldwin  has  been  known  since  the  middle  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  while  Ben  Davis  was  propagated  over  one 
hundred  years  ago.  Jonathan  was  first  exhibited  in  1829, 
while  Northern  Spy  has  been  famous  for  its  high  dessert 
and  market  qualities  for  over  one  hundred  years.  Rhode 
Island  Greening  was  highly  recommended  as  long  ago  as 
1800  and  the  same  is  true  of  Tompkins  King.  Yellow 
Newtown  has  been  prized  for  its  good  qualities  for  almost 
387 


388  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

two  centuries,  while  the  good  qualities  of  the  Winesap 
apple  were  known  as  long  ago  as  1817.  Oldenburg 
(Duchess),  the  planting  of  which  has  become  very  exten- 
sive in  recent  years,  is  a  very  old  European  variety  which 
was  introduced  in  this  country  as  long  ago  as  1835. 

Yellow  Bellflower,  one  of  the  leading  varieties  of  Cal- 
ifornia and  well  known  throughout  the  country,  has  been 
noted  for  its  dessert  quality  for  one  hundred  years.  Stay- 
man,  which  is  ordinarily  classed  as  new,  bore  fruit  as  early 
as  1875.  Grimes  was  a  commercial  sort  in  1800.  Esopus 
Spitzenburg  was  grown  in  the  Hudson  Valley  over  a  cen- 
tury ago.  The  Delicious  is  about  the  only  variety  of 
recent  origin  which  has  grown  to  great  popularity  and 
forced  itself  on  practically  all  the  commercial  markets. 

This  brief  discussion  serves  to  emphasize  how  hard  it  is 
for  any  variety  to  become  well  known  in  commercial  chan- 
nels without  many  years  of  thorough  trial  and  an  acquaint- 
anceship with  the  public.  It  further  serves  to  emphasize 
how  really  few  kinds  survive.  It  is  said  that  approxi- 
mately 7,000  varieties  of  apples  have  been  described  in 
pomological  publications  since  1804.  Of  these,  very  few 
are  of  commercial  importance  to-day.  This  does  not  pre- 
clude the  possibility  of  developing  new  and  better  kinds, 
but  the  commercial  grower  has  found  it  profitable  to  limit 
the  number  of  his  varieties  and  allow  others  to  experiment 
with  new  or  doubtful  ones. 

In  every  region,  from  four  to  six  well-known  varieties 
have  proved  most  profitable,  and  it  is  the  safest  plan  to 
select  three  or  four  from- this  list  and  plant  new  varieties 
only  in  limited  quantities.  In  the  early  history  of  com- 
mercial apple-growing,  it  was  necessary  to  experiment  with 
untried  varieties  since  no  one  knew  exactly  what  ones 


Varieties  of  Apples  389 

were  best  adapted  to  the  different  regions.  Most  of  this 
pioneer  work  has  been  done,  however,  and  it  is  no  longer 
necessary  to  take  chances  with  strange  varieties. 

In  a  discussion  of  varieties,  the  question  of  relative 
flavor  of  the  same  sort  grown  in  different  regions  arises. 
An  interesting  investigation  has  been  conducted  by  the 
Bureau  of  Chemistry,  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, which  reveals  that  there  is  essentially  no  difference 
in  chemical  constituency  between  normal  specimens  of 
apples  of  the  same  variety  grown  in  different  regions. 
The  percentage  of  water  content  and  solid  matter  is  prac- 
tically the  same.  This  investigation,  of  course,  did  not 
pertain  to  the  physiological  or  cell-structure  of  the  apples, 
and  it  may  be  true  that  some  difference  exists  in  this 
respect. 

A  western  apple  forced  by  unwise  irrigation,  or  picked 
green,  will  not  compare  with  the  choicest  specimens  of 
eastern  apples.  One  region  may  grow  one  or  two  varieties 
to  great  perfection  in  quality  and  flavor,  while  another 
will  grow  superior  apples  of  some  other  kind.  New  York 
has  its  Baldwin  and  Rhode  Island  Greening;  Virginia  its 
York  Imperial,  Yellow  JSTewtown  (Albemarle  Pippin)  and 
Winesap;  the  central  states  their  Ben  Davis,  Jonathan 
and  Wealthy ;  the  West  its  Delicious,  Jonathan,  Winesap, 
and  so  on. 

Seed  selection  and  hybridization  have  been  responsible 
for  the  improvement  of  many  cultivated  plants  and  for  the 
discovery  of  many  new  varieties,  but  not  so  for  the  culti- 
vated fruits.  Practically  all  varieties  of  fruit  are  the 
result  of  chance  discovery  of  seedlings.  The  apple  does 
not  come  true  to  seed,  but  is  propogated  by  grafting  a  cion 
or  bud  from  a  known  variety  on  a  seedling  root.  Plant- 


390  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

breeding  is  a  much  discussed  subject  and  the  layman  may 
conceive  that  new  varieties  of  apples  are  being  developed 
by  this  method.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  experiments  thus 
far  conducted  in  crossing  different  varieties  of  apples  have 
been  very  inconclusive  and  unsatisfactory. 

New  varieties  are  being  constantly  discovered  and  very 
often  widely  advertised.  Some  are  worthy  and  some  are 
not.  The  most  noted  new  variety  is  the  Golden  Delicious 
which  is  being  planted  very  extensively  and  in  the  next 
decade  will  appear  in  most  of  the  commercial  markets. 
Wherever  tried,  it  has  proved  productive  and  highly  profit- 
able. The  grower  may  experiment  but  should  not  plant 
new  varieties  extensively  before  they  have  been  firmly 
established,  or  have  proved  profitable.  High  quality  var- 
ieties are  very  often  the  most  profitable,  but  occasionally 
they  prove  undesirable  on  account  of  their  tendency  toward 
shy  bearing.  The  Ben  Davis  apple,  on  account  of  its 
high  annual  yield,  has  proved  more  profitable  over  a  period 
of  years  than  some  of  the  better  quality  varieties.  The 
public,  however,  is  becoming  more  fastidious  in  its  selec- 
tion, and  in  the  competition  between  high  and  low  quality 
apples  some  of  the  latter  are  being  crowded  out. 

Seldom  do  two  varieties  ripen  at  exactly  the  same  time, 
and  with  a  maximum  of  four  or  five  leading  kinds  there  is 
usually  a  sufficiently  long  harvest  period  to  permit  of  the 
most  economical  harvesting  practice.  Buyers  and  even 
cooperative  organizations  insist  on  a  limited  number  of 
varieties,  and  prefer  them  in  carlots.  The  grower  with  a 
miscellaneous  list  of  varieties  is  the  last  to  sell  his  crop, 
whereas  the  one  with  two  or  three  kinds  of  uniform  size 
and  color  has  a  decided  advantage  in  the  market.  The 
farmer  planting  a  home  orchard  selects  a  few  trees  of  each 


Varieties  of  Apples  391 

of  several  varieties,  in  order  that  he  may  have  a  continuous 
home  supply  during  the  late  summer,  fall  and  winter 
months.  The  average  commercial  grower  does  well  to 
select  three  or  at  most  four  varieties.  This  choice  should 
not  be  difficult.  Certain  regions  are  adapted  to  well- 
known  varieties.  The  consuming  public  is  familiar  with 
the  i  name  and  quality  of  these  and  has  come  to  demand 
them.  Were  one  to  plant  an  orchard  in  western  New 
York,  the  varieties  should  be  largely  Baldwin  and  Green- 
ing, with  possibly  some  Twenty  Ounce,  Duchess  or 
Wealthy.  Delicious,  King  David  and  others  may  prove 
profitable,  but  Baldwin  and  Rhode  Island  Greening  have 
stood  the  test  of  trial.  Baldwin,  Rhode  Island  Greening, 
Ben  Davis,  Northern  Spy  and  Mclntosh  are  successfully 
grown  in  the  Hudson  Valley,  although  proximity  to  New 
York  City  might  warrant  planting  one  or  two  varieties  of 
summer  apples,  such  as  Oldenburg,  Gravenstein  or  Will- 
iams. In  the  Champlain  district  of  northern  New  York 
and  Vermont,  the  Fameuse,  Mclntosh  and  Northern  Spy 
are  suited  to  these  northern  latitudes.  Across  in  New 
England  the  Baldwin,  Northern  Spy  and  Rhode  Island 
Greening  predominate,  with  Mclntosh,  Fameuse,  Wealthy 
and  others  following  in  importance. 

In  Virginia,  the  commercial  crop  virtually  consists  of 
six  varieties,  Albemarle  Pippin  (Yellow  Newtown),  Ben 
Davis,  York  Imperial,  Winesap,  Stayman  and  Delicious. 
In  the  Ohio  Valley,  Rome  Beauty  and  Ben  Davis  lead; 
in  Michigan,  the  leading  varieties  are  Northern  Spy  and 
Baldwin.  In  the  Ozark  region  Ben  Davis,  Gano  and 
Jonathan  predominate.  Western  states  have  a  somewhat 
larger  list  of  leading  kinds.  Each  district  has  a  host  of 
other  varieties,  but  geographic  distribution  of  the  really 


392  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

important  sorts  is  comparatively  simple  and  it  should  not 
be  hard  to  determine  for  any  one  locality  the  varieties 
which  really  have  proved  successful.  It  is  by  no  means 
intended  that  prospective  growers  should  select  only  from 
the  few  kinds  named  below,  but  rather  than  risk  untried 
varieties  it  might  be  wise  to  select  from  such  old  ones 
and  those  best  adapted  to  the  particular  locality. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  standard  varieties  grown 
successfully,  and  recommended  for  planting  in  the  various 
regions : 

Western  New  York  — 

Baldwin,    Rhode   Island   Greening,   Ben   Davis    or    Gano, 

Oldenburg    (Duchess),  Wealthy,   Twenty  Ounce. 
Hudson  Valley  — 

Mclntosh,  Rhode  Island  Greening,  Baldwin,  Wealthy,  Old- 
enburg, Northern  Spy. 
Vermont  and  Champlain  District  — 

Mclntosh,  Northern  Spy,  Fameuse,  Wealthy,  Gravenstein. 
New  England  — 

Baldwin,    Rhode    Island    Greening,    Mclntosh,    Wealthy, 

Gravenstein,  Williams  Early  Red. 
New  Jersey  — 

Stayman,     Oldenburg,     Winesap,     Williams     Early    Red, 

Wealthy,  Yellow  Transparent,  Starr. 
Delaware  — 

Stayman,  Gano,  Yellow  Transparent,  Williams  Early  Red, 

Wealthy. 
Piedmont  of  Virginia  — 

Yellow  Newtown  (Albemarle  Pippin),  Winesap,  Stayman, 

Grimes  (top  worked). 
Southern  Pennslvania  — 

Stayman,  York  Imperial,   Grimes,   Oldenburg   (Duchess), 

Yellow  Transparent. 
Shenandoah  Valley  of  Virginia  — 

Stayman,   York   Imperial,   Ben   Davis   or   Gano,    Grimes, 


Varieties  of  Apples  393 

Winesap  (in  southern  end  of  valley),  Yellow  Transparent, 

Oldenburg  (Duchess). 
Mountain  Region  of  North  Carolina  — 

Stayman,  Winesap,  Ben  Davis  or  Gano,  Delicious,  Arkansas 

(Black  Twig),  Bonum. 
Mountain  Region  of  Georgia  — 

Yates,  Terry's  Winter,  Stayman,  Arkansas,  Yellow  Trans- 
parent, Delicious. 
Southern  Ohio  — 

Rome  Beauty,   Ben   Davis,   Grimes,   Stayman,   Oldenburg 

(Duchess),  Yellow  Transparent,  Wealthy. 
Northern  Ohio  — 

Baldwin,  Rhode  Island  Greening,  Northern  Spy,  Mclntosh, 

Oldenburg  (Duchess),  Yellow  Transparent,  Wealthy. 
Illinois  — 

Wealthy,  Oldenburg  (Duchess),  Red  June,  Yellow  Trans- 
parent   for    extreme    southern    part    of    state.     Jonathan, 

Stayman,  Delicious,  Gano  and  Grimes  (double  worked)  for 

south  central  and  western  Illinois. 
Ozarks  — 

Jonathan,   Stayman,  Winesap,   Gano,  Black  Ben,   Grimes 

(double  worked),  Yellow  Transparent. 
Missouri  River  Region  — 

Ben    Davis,    Gano    or    Black    Ben,    Jonathan,    Winesap, 

Wealthy. 
Michigan  — 

Northern  Spy,  Ben  Davis,  Baldwin,  Rhode  Island  Greening, 

Mclntosh,  Wealthy,  Oldenburg  (Duchess). 
Western  Colorado  — 

Jonathan,  Winesap,  Gano. 
Wenatchee  and  Yakima  Valleys  — 

Jonathan,  Winesap,  Delicious  (Red  and  Golden),  Stayman, 

Rome  Beauty,  Yellow  Newtown,  Grimes,  Winter  Banana. 
Hood  River  Valley,  Oregon  — 

Yellow  Newtown,  Esopus  (Spitzenburg),  Ortley. 
Pajaro  Valley,  California  — 

Yellow  Newtown,  Yellow  Bellflower. 

The  varieties  which  will  be  discussed  individually  in 


394  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

this  chapter  may  assist  in  outlining  in  more  detail  the 
geographic  distribution  of  the  commercial  sorts.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  how  many  of  these  most  desirable  vari- 
eties are  not  new  discoveries,  but  are  over  a  hundred 
years  old. 

STJMMEB  VABIETIES 

The  question  of  summer  varieties  requires  separate 
treatment.  In  their  selection,  the  proximity  to  markets 
is  an  important  factor.  The  great  perishability  of  early 
apples  limits  their  production  to  such  regions  as  have  access 
to  ready  markets. 

It  is  sometimes  suggested  that  the  commercial  grower 
may  well  have  a  number  of  varieties  ripening  at  different 
times  in  order  to  supply  the  demands  of  local  or  nearby 
markets  throughout  a  long  season.  In  some  instances 
this  may  be  advisable,  particularly  in  the  case  of  small 
growers  in  the  vicinity  of  large  cities,  who  do  most  of  their 
own  work  and  where  the  orchardist  or  a  member  of  his 
family  markets  the  fruit  locally.  The  extra  expense  of 
harvesting  apples  in  small  quantities  is  a  strong  argument 
against  too  wide  diversification. 

The  growing  of  summer  varieties  has  proved  very  profit- 
able to  many  growers  who  are  so  situated  that  their  fruit 
reaches  the  market  in  advance  of  that  from  other  regions 
and  to  growers  who  cater  to  local  and  special  markets.  A 
light  soil  which  warms  up  early  is  essential. 

It  is  difficult  to  draw  a  sharp  line  between  summer,  fall 
and  winter  varieties.  A  variety  may  be  known  as  a  fall 
sort  in  one  section  and  as  a  winter  in  another.  It  is  prob- 
ably safer  to  make  an  arbitrary  distinction  based  on  har- 
vesting dates  rather  than  on  varieties.  Summer  kinds  in- 


Varieties  of  Apples  395 

elude  those  normally  consumed  before  September  15th ;  fall 
varieties,  those  normally  disposed  of  by  November  15th ; 
and  winter  sorts  those  consumed  after  November  15th. 
Were  there  only  the  two  classes,  summer  and  winter,  it 
might  be  well  to  include  among  summer  varieties  those 
which  are  consumed  normally  before  October  15th. 

Winter  varieties  are  usually  considered  as  those  com- 
monly held  in  storage.  The  dates  of  ripening  of  the  same 
variety  in  different  regions  sometimes  works  to  the  advant- 
age of  the  earlier  sections.  One  instance  of  the  kind  is 
found  in  the  Pecos  Valley  of  New  Mexico,  where  Jon- 
athans mature  earlier  than  in  the  other  western  apple 
districts.  For  this  reason,  New  Mexico  Jonathans  have 
a  distinct  advantage  in  the  Texas  markets.  Variation  in 
ripening  dates  is  further  exemplified  in  such  northern 
states  as  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota,  where  varieties  con- 
sidered in  some  sections  as  strictly  summer  apples  do  not 
ripen  until  fall.  The  Oldenburg  (Duchess)  is  an  exam- 
ple of  this  kind.  The  Baldwin  apple,  generally  known, 
and  particularly  in  New  York  and  New  England,  as  a 
strictly  winter  variety,  is  considered  a  fall  apple  in  some 
parts  of  Maryland  and  Virginia. 

LATE  VARIETIES 

The  following  varieties,  divided  into  early  and  late,  are 
arranged  in  their  order  of  importance  in  total  commercial 
production.  They  are  discussed  from  a  commercial  stand- 
point, with  reference  to  their  adaptation  and  distribution 
throughout  the  different  apple  regions  of  the  United 
States.  No  consideration  was  given  to  home  orchard  pro- 
duction in  establishing  order  of  importance. 


396  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

Baldwin  (Plate  XXI). 

Approximately  50  per  cent  of  the  commercial  apple 
production  in  New  York  and  New  England  consists  of 
Baldwins.  This  variety  is  said  to  have  originated  as  a 
chance  seedling  in  Massachusetts  in  about  1740.  While 
its  culture  is  largely  confined  to  these  states,  to  Michigan 
and  the  northern  parts  of  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania,  it  is 
the  leading  commercial  apple  in  the  United  States.  The 
question  of  selecting  Baldwin  for  commercial  planting 
outside  of  this  region  should  be  considered  very  carefully, 
but  within  these  confines  it  is  almost  invariably  a  wise 
choice. 

In  more  southern  latitudes,  the  fruit  ripens  early  and 
tends  to  drop  prematurely,  while  in  northern  New  York 
and  upper  New  England  the  wood  sometimes  winter-kills. 
The  tree  is  strong,  large  and  vigorous,  the  many  old  Bald- 
win orchards  in  western  New  York  testifying  to  its  long- 
evity. While  somewhat  late  in  coming  to  full  bearing,  and 
once  matured  inclined  to  biennial  bearing,  in  total  pro- 
duction the  Baldwin  tree  is  one  of  the  heavy  bearers,  and 
in  commercial  importance  it  stands  preeminent.  The 
ideal  Baldwin  soil  is  a  fine  sandy  loam  underlaid  by  plas- 
tic light  clay  or  heavy  silt  loam.  The  fruit  is  of  good 
quality,  stands  shipment  and  keeps  comparatively  well, 
although  it  sometimes  develops  Baldwin  spot  both  before 
and  after  picking.  The  Baldwin  crop  is  shipped  almost 
exclusively  in  barrels  and  much  of  it  is  used  for  culinary 
purposes.  The  selling  price,  while  not  the  highest,  is 
usually  firm.  The  variety  figures  prominently  in  the  ex- 
port trade. 


Varieties  of  Apples  397 

Ben  Davis. 

The  Ben  Davis  comes  next  to  the  Baldwin  in  commercial 
importance  on  account  of  its  wide  distribution..  It  is 
thought  to  have  originated  in  the  southern  states  about 
1800  and  has  been  a  leading  commercial  variety  for  many 
years,  particularly  in  Missouri  and  Arkansas  where,  with 
the  Gano,  it  represents  from  60  to  80  per  cent  of  the 
commercial  production.  The  Ben  Davis  apple  has  played 
an  important  part  in  nearly  every  commercial  apple-grow- 
ing region  in  this  country,  and  thrives  in  nearly  all  but  the 
most  northern  states.  The  tree  is  strong  and  vigorous, 
with  upright  form,  and  seldom  breaks  under  heavy  loads. 
It  comes  into  bearing  early  and  yields  large  annual  crops. 
Unquestionably  Ben  Davis  production  is  rapidly  on  the 
decline.  Very  few  trees  of  this  variety  are  being  planted 
anywhere  in  the  country.  Its  susceptibility  to  the  Illinois 
blister-canker  has  been  the  cause  of  heavy  loss  in  trees  all 
through  the  Ozarks,  Missouri  River  region  and  Illinois. 
This  susceptibility  seems  the  one  weakness  in  the  tree. 

The  fruit  ranks  Ibwest  in  dessert  quality  of  all  leading 
varieties,  yet  for  cooking,  shipping,  and  keeping  qualities, 
it  stands  among  the  best.  Ben  Davis  is  important  in  the 
Northwest  where  it  is  boxed.  In  the  Ozarks  and  Middle 
West  it  is  shipped  both  in  bulk  and  in  barrels,  and  in 
eastern  states,  principally  Virginia,  it  is  largely  barreled. 

It  is  adapted  to  a  very  wide  range  of  soils,  perhaps  more 
so  than  any  other  standard  variety.  Despite  low  prices, 
Ben  Davis  has  unquestionably  been  a  profitable  apple  on 
account  of  its  large  annual  yields.  From  a  strictly  mone- 
tary standpoint,  and  over  a  long  period  of  years,  commer- 
cial growers  rank  Ben  Davis  among  their  best  paying 
sorts. 


398  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

Winesap. 

This  old  and  well  known  apple  is  one  of  the  most  import- 
ant commercial  varieties.  It  is  growing  in  popularity  and 
its  production  has  been  greatly  increased  in  recent  years. 
It  is  particularly  adapted  to  the  Piedmont  section  of  Vir- 
ginia and  to  the  Yakima  and  Wenatchee  valleys  in  Wash- 
ington, where  it  is  the  leading  variety.  In  the  Missouri 
River  region,  at  the  intersection  of  Nebraska,  Missouri, 
Iowa  and  Kansas,  and  also  in  southern  Illinois,  the  Wine- 
sap  production  is  increasing. 

Excellent  qualities  of  both  tree  and  fruit  make  the  Wine- 
sap  a  good  commercial  variety  for  the  regions  named.  It 
is  not  grown  commercially  in  New  York  or  New  England. 
The  tree  is  vigorous,  not  particularly  susceptible  to  any 
disease  or  insect  pests,  and  does  best  on  light  rich  soils.  It 
comes  into  bearing  early  and  is  an  annual  cropper.  The 
fruit  tends  to  grow  small  in  some  sections  and  the  tree 
does  not  thrive  on  heavy  clay  or  low  wet  soil.  Winesap 
apples  are  a  stable  product.  They  hang  on  the  trees  well, 
are  excellent  keepers,  and  sell  well  from  storage.  Arkan- 
sas, Arkansas  Black,  and  Stayman  Winesap  are  seedlings 
of  the  old  Winesap. 

Rhode  Island  Greening. 

Rhode  Island  Greening,  originating  in  Rhode  Island 
about  two  centuries  ago,  is  second  in  importance  to  Baldwin 
in  New  York  state  and  its  distribution  throughout  the 
northeastern  part  of  the  United  States  coincides  largely 
with  that  of  the  latter  variety.  The  Greening  fits  in  well 
with  the  Baldwin  in  a  farm  management  scheme,  since  it 
ripens  somewhat  earlier  and  very  often  produces  a  crop 
during  the  light  year  for  Baldwins. 


Varieties  of  Apples  399 

The  tree  is  large,  vigorous  and  productive,  but  given  to 
biennial  bearing.  It  prefers  a  fertile  surface  soil  of  grav- 
elly or  sandy  loam,  underlaid  by  a  well  drained  clay  loam. 
The  apple-scab  fungus  is  one  of  its  worst  enemies.  Com- 
mercial plantings  are  almost  exclusively  in  New  York, 
New  England,  Ohio,  Michigan,  and  the  more  northern 
parts  of  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania.  The  apples  are 
rather  large  and  grade  out  well.  The  storage  limit  is 
usually  February  or  March. 

Jonathan. 

Jonathan  is  a  seedling  of  the  Esopus  Spitzenburg,  and 
originated  at  Woodstock  in  Ulster  County,  New  York.  It 
was  first  described  in  1826  and  named  after  Jonathan 
Hasbrouck,  who  first  called  attention  to  the  variety.  The 
stronghold  of  the  Jonathan  as  a  commercial  apple  is  in  the 
middle  western  and  western  states.  There  are  few  com- 
mercial plantings  of  this  variety  east  of  the  Mississippi. 
Jonathan  is  the  leading  sort  in  both  Colorado  and  Idaho, 
and  is  important  in  Washington,  Utah  and  New  Mexico, 
being  grown  under  irrigation  in  large  commercial  quanti- 
ties in  all  five  states.  The  high  quality  and  brilliant  red 
coloring  adapts  it  particularly  to  the  boxed  apple  industry. 
Irrigation  overcomes  its  tendency  towards  small  size.  The 
Jonathan  has  rather  extensive  distribution  through  the 
Middle  West,  particularly  in  the  loess  soil  region,  along 
the  Missouri  River  at  the  intersection  of  Iowa,  Missouri, 
Nebraska  and  Kansas.  Here  it  is  a  barreled  apple. 

In  quality  the  fruit  ranks  high.  The  tree,  although 
inclined  to  a  somewhat  drooping  willowy  habit  of  growth, 
is  vigorous  and  yields  well  as  it  is  adapted  to  rich  soil. 
Under  irrigation  it  is  sometimes  subject  to  fire-blight, 


400  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

although  not  to  such  an  extent  as  the  Esopus  Spitzenburg. 
The  fruit  brings  high  prices  but  is  inclined  to  develop  the 
Jonathan  spot  in  storage.  It  is  usually  consumed  before 
February  and  is  the  first  of  the  leading  varieties  to  be 
moved  from  the  western  irrigated  regions.  Normal  har- 
vest period  is  September  10th  to  20th. 

York  Imperial. 

York  Imperial  originated  shortly  after  1800  near  York, 
Pennsylvania.  It  was  propagated  before  1830  by  Jon- 
athan Jessop  under  the  name  of  Johnson's  Fine  Winter 
which  it  still  retains  in  many  remote  parts  of  the  South. 
The  commercial  production  of  York  Imperial  is  largely 
confined  to  the  valley  of  the  Shenandoah,  in  Virginia,  and 
to  the  Cumberland  Valley  in  Pennsylvania,  centering  in 
Frederick  County,  Virginia;  Berkeley  County,  West  Vir- 
ginia ;  Washington  County,  Maryland ;  Franklin  and 
Adams  counties,  Pennsylvania.  Outside  of  these  and 
adjoining  counties,  the  distribution  of  York  Imperial  is 
scattering  and  relatively  unimportant,  being  chiefly  in  the 
Middle  West.  In  the  district  defined,  however,  this  var- 
iety is  preeminent  and  contributes  large  quantities  of 
commercial  apples. 

Although  tending  to  bear  biennially,  it  yields  heavy 
crops  and  is  the  most  reliable  variety  in  the  Shenandoah- 
Cumberland  region  where  it  has  long  been  one  of  the 
leading  export  apples.  It  has  a  preference  for  heavy 
clay  and  limestone  soils.  The  fruit  is  oblique,  or  lop- 
sided, and  is  inclined  to  scald  in  storage.  The  fruit  is 
also  very  susceptible  to  cedar-rust.  The  normal  season 
ends  in  February. 


Varieties  of  Apples  401 

Rome. 

The  Rome  Beauty,  a  native  of  the  Ohio  River  Valley, 
was  first  planted  on  the  farm  of  Alanson  Gillette  at  Proc- 
torville,  Ohio,  in  1817,  and  was  known  as*  Gillett's  Seed- 
ling until  1832.  It  has  sprung  to  great  prominence  in 
southern  Ohio  and  in  the  irrigated  districts  of  the  Pacific 
Northwest.  The  tree  is  vigorous,  bears  early,  is  suscept- 
ible to  few  diseases  and  insect  pests,  seldom  breaks  with 
a  heavy  load,  and  yields  heavily  in  the  Northwest. 

The  Rome  Beauty,  although  not  of  the  highest  quality, 
ranks  as  a  good  commercial  variety  in  its  proper  regions. 
It  is  especially  desired  for  baking.  The  fruit  stands  up 
exceptionally  well  in  storage,  keeping  as  late  as  May.  It 
is  occasionally  criticized  for  lack  of  color  at  maturity,  but 
seldom  lacks  good  size.  Extensive  plantings  are  not  found 
outside  of  the  Pacific  Northwest  and  the  Ohio  Valley,  but 
in  these  regions  it  has  proved  very  profitable. 

Northern  Spy. 

The  Northern  Spy  originated  at  East  Bloomfield,  New 
York,  in  a  seedling  orchard  planted  by  Herman  Chapin 
about  1800  and  was  recognized  by  the  American  Pomolog- 
ical  Society  in  1852.  It  has  a  rather  wide  distribution 
throughout  the  northeastern  part  of  the  United  States,  but 
is  declining  in  importance  as  a  commercial  variety.  Mich- 
igan has  as  large  a  percentage  of  Northern  Spys  as  any 
state,  unless  it  should  be  Vermont,  although  production  in 
the  former  state  is  many  times  that  of  the  latter.  The 
"  Spy "  is  generally  grown  throughout  New  York,  and 
is  a  farm  orchard  variety  in  many  districts.  It  is  adapted 
to  the  northermost  counties  of  the  latter  state  and  is  widely 


402  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

grown  in  Canada.  Xew  York  leads  in  commercial  pro- 
duction of  "  Spys  "  in  this  country,  followed  by  Michigan. 
The  tree  is  considered  hardy  and  vigorous,  although 
somewhat  susceptible  to  the  apple-scab.  Its  root  system  is 
very  often  used  as  a  stock  for  other  less  vigorous  varieties. 
One  of  its  principal  disadvantages  is  the  lateness  at  which 
it  comes  into  bearing.  When  properly  matured,  the  Xorth- 
ern  Spy  is  a  high  quality  apple  and  a  good  keeper,  but  as  a 
commercial  variety  it  should  be  grown  on  heavy  soils,  as  it 
is  deficient  in  quality  when, grown  in  sandy  soils.  It  is 
not  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  climatic  conditions,  pre- 
ferring cooler  regions.  It  matures  too  early  south  of  Penn- 
sylvania to  be  profitable  commercially. 

Yellow  Newtown  (Albemarle  Pippin}  (Plate  XXII). 

This  variety  is  one  of  the  oldest  in  America  and  one  with 
very  interesting  historical  association.  The  origin  is 
credited  to  Long  Island,  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  Although  first  grown  in  Xew  York,  Xew  Jersey 
and  Pennsylvania,  its  wider  cultivation  occurred  in  the 
Piedmont  section  of  Virginia,  particularly  in  Albemarle 
County,  to  which  locality  it  is  especially  adapted  and  where 
it  afterwards  became  known  as  the  Albemarle  Pippin. 
The  Xewtown  is  reported  to  have  been  exported  to  Eng- 
land as  early  as  1759  and  since  that  time  has  commanded 
the  highest  prices  on  the  English  market.  It  is  generally 
known  as  an  export  apple  for  which  it  is  particularly 
adapted  on  account  of  its  late  keeping  qualities. 

The  principal  commercial  regions  for  the  Xewtown  are : 
the  Piedmont  section  of  Virginia,  particularly  Albemarle 
and  Xelson  counties;  the  Hood  River  and  Rogue  River 
valleys  in  Oregon;  the  Pajaro  or  Watsonville  section  in 


Varieties  of  Apples  403 

California ;  and  the  Wenatchee  and  Yakima  valleys,  in  the 
state  of  Washington.  The  Pajaro  Valley,  in  Santa  Cruz 
and  Monterey  counties,  California,  leads  in  total  produc- 
tion of  Yellow  Newtown  apples,  having  produced  1,700,- 
000  packed  boxes  in  1919.  These  were  practically  all 
grown  within  a  radius  of  ten  miles  of  the  town  of  Watson-i 
ville.  Oregon  is  second.  Both  states,  and  possibly  Wash- 
ington, take  precedence  over  Virginia  from  the  standpoint 
of  quantity  produced.  It  may  be  seen  that  the  Yellow 
Newtowii  apple  is  somewhat  exacting  in  its  soil  and  clim- 
atic requirements,  since  the  bulk  of  its  commercial  produc- 
tion in  the  United  States  comes  from  the  six  or  eight  coun- 
ties described  above.  It  is  a  good  commercial  variety, 
keeps  well,  and  commands  the  highest  export  prices.  Its 
tendency  is  towards  shy  bearing,  however,  and  it  is  partic- 
ularly susceptible  to  apple-scab  and  bitter-rot  and  to 
anthracnose  in  the  Hood  River  Valley.  The  selling  price 
of  the  fruit  has  made  it  profitable  in  the  regions  described, 
despite  somewhat  low  yields.  Virginia  and  Hood  River 
"  Xewtowns  "  are  of  particularly  high  quality. 

The  tree  is  a  rather  slow  grower  and  does  not  come  into 
full  bearing  as  early  as  some  varieties.  The  fruit  is  solid 
green  at  harvesting,  developing  a  yellow  color  late  in  the 
season.  As  stated  above,  the  Newtown  is  exacting  and  its 
selection  for  extensive  planting  should  only  follow  careful 
investigation  of  the  adaptability  to  a  particular  region. 

Esopus  Spitzenburg  (Plate  XXIII). 

The  Esopus,  known  more  commonly  in  commercial  dis- 
tricts as  Spitzenburg,  originated  at  Esopus,  Ulster  County, 
New  York,  over  one  hundred  years  ago.  It  is  an  import- 
ant western  boxed  apple  extensively  grown  in  the  Wen- 


404  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

atchee  and  Yakima  valleys,  Washington,  and  in  Hood 
River  and  Rogue  River  valleys,  Oregon.  Aside  from  dis- 
tribution in  western  irrigated  sections,  it  is  grown  in  quan- 
tity in  the  Hudson  and  Mohawk  valleys  of  Xew  York,  and 
in  a  more  limited  way  in  western  New  York. 

The  Spitzenburg  rivals  the  Newtown  in  the  Hood  River 
Valley  and  ranks  among  the  leading  varieties  in  Wenatchee 
and  Yakima.  Fire-blight  has  exacted  heavy  tolls  from  the 
Spitzenburg  plantings,  in  both  the  Yakima  Valley  and  the 
Rogue  Valley,  Oregon,  and  for  this  reason  the  variety  has 
grown  into  disfavor.  The  fruit  is  excellent  from  the  stand- 
point of  dessert,  cooking  and  keeping  qualities.  The  tree 
is  inclined  to  shy  bearing,  however,  and  must  be  protected 
carefully  from  disease  and  insect  infestation.  It  is  more 
susceptible  to  fire-blight  than  any  other  commercity  vari- 
ety. Except  in  the  Hood  River  Valley  and  possibly  one 
or  two  other  districts,  it  is  not  generally  looked  on  by  com- 
mercial growers  as  very  profitable.  One  of  the  most  notice- 
able characteristics  of  the  Esopus  is  its  peculiar  habit  of 
tree  growth,  in  the  form  of  long  pole-like  branches  which 
are  difficult  to  control  in  pruning. 

Grimes  Golden. 

Originating  in  West  Virginia,  and  mentioned  as  a  com- 
mercial variety  as  early  as  1800,  the  Grimes  Golden  has 
rather  wide  distribution  throughout  the  state  of  its  origin, 
Virginia,  Maryland,  Ohio  Valley,  middle  west  and  western 
states.  Important  commercial  quantities  are  produced  in 
Washington,  West  Virginia,  Maryland,  the  Ozarks,  south- 
ern Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Missouri  River  region. 
The  fruit  is  unsurpassed  in  quality,  regular  in  its  cylin- 
drical form,  and  uniformly  a  rich  golden  ye!16w.  The 


Varieties  of  Apples  405 

skin  is  subject  to  scald  in  storage,  but  the  flesh  keeps  well. 
The  tree  is  not  sufficiently  hardy  to  withstand  rigorous  win- 
ters and  is  also  subject  to  collar-rot,  the  latter  tendency 
being  one  of  its  chief  weaknesses.  When  planting,  it 
should  always  be  double  worked  so  as  to  overcome  this  tend- 
ency. The  Grimes  is  an  important  commercial  variety  in 
Missouri,  a  somewhat  refreshing  comparison  with  the  pre- 
ponderance of  Ben  Davis  in  this  region.  In  some  sections 
the  fruit  tends  to  be  small,  but  invariably  it  is  high  in 
quality,  a  strong  recommendation  for  its  use  in  home 
planting  and  also  in  certain  commercial  areas. 

Stayman.1 

Among  the  newer  varieties,  the  Stayman  Winesap 
stands  out  as  one  of  the  most  worthy  and  one  which  is 
growing  in  popularity  in  many  parts  of  the  country.  The 
origin  is  credited  to  a  seedling  from  old  Winesap  produced 
at  Leavenworth,  Kansas,  in  1866,  which  bore  fruit  first  in 
1875.  In  many  ways,  it  resembles  the  old  Winesap, 
although  the  coloring  of  the  fruit  is  less  brilliant.  It  is 
grown  extensively  in  the  Northwest,  where  it  has  proved 
a  good  yielding  and  profitable  variety,  its  selling  price 
improving  as  it  has  become  better  known.  Old  Winesap 
is  looked  on  with  greater  favor,  however,  by  most  commer- 
cial growers  in  the  Northwest. 

The  Stayman  is  one  of  the  softest  of  the  winter  varieties, 
yet  a  good  keeper.  It  tends  to  drop  somewhat  at  maturity. 
Extensive  plantings  have  recently  been  made  in  Ohio, 
Pennsylvania,  and  the  Virginias.  It  is  also  adapted  to 
the  apple  sections  of  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia,  having  a 
somewhat  wider  range  than  old  Winesap  in  this  respect. 
Stayman  production  will  unquestionably  increase  many 


406  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

times  since  it  is  proving  a  popular  variety  in  the  eastern 
regions  described.  The  tree  is  vigorous,  comes  into  bearing 
early,  and  is  the  old  Winesap  in  many  ways.  The  fruit 
lacks  some  of  the  keeping  qualities  of  the  parent  variety. 

Delicious. 

The  Wenatchee  and  Yakima  valleys  in  Washington  are 
at  present  producing  most  of  the  Delicious  apples  which 
appear  on  the  market,  although  extensive  young  plantings 
occur  in  the  East,  particularly  in  Virginia.  The  variety 
is  of  recent  origin,  being  credited  to  Iowa,  but  having  been 
planted  more  extensively  in  the  Northwest  than  any  other 
region.  While  as  yet  untried  in  many  sections,  it  has 
proved  profitable  in  certain  irrigated  districts  of  the  West. 

The  tree  is  vigorous,  grows  to  good  size,  and  is  free  from 
any  inherent  weakness.  The  fruit  is  large,  oblong  conical, 
with  five  knob-like  protrusions  at  the  calyx  end.  This 
peculiarity  gives  it  a  distinctive  appearance.  The  color  is 
yellowish-red,  usually  striped,  but  sometimes  more  or  less 
deep  solid  red.  Its  normal  season  for  use  ends  in  March, 
when  the  flesh  tends  to  become  somewhat  dry  and  mealy. 
Otherwise  it  is  a  very  good  keeper.  The  Delicious  apple 
has  become  very  popular  as  a  high  class  dessert  apple  on 
account  of  its  very  distinctive  and  pleasing  flavor.  It  is 
the  favorite  fruit-stand  apple  in  eastern  cities  and  tops  the 
boxed  apple  market  in  price.  Its  popularity  with  the  con- 
suming public  is  demonstrated  by  the  high  price  which  it 
commands. 

Obviously  the  determining  factor  in  the  selection  of  this 
variety  for  commercial  planting  is  yield.  Some  beautiful 
specimens  have  been  produced  on  young  trees  in  southern 
and  eastern  states,  but  whether  it  will  prove  a  profitable 


Varieties  of  Apples  407 

variety  when  generally  planted  outside  of  demonstrated 
irrigated  regions  remains  to  be  seen.  Performance  records 
of  full  bearing  commercial  orchards  will  be  the  only  safe 
guide.  High  quality  apples  are  very  often  fastidious  in 
their  requirements  for  commercial  success,  but  this  variety 
is  certainly  worthy  of  a  thorough  trial. 

Gano  and  Black  Ben. 

Gano  was  first  brought  to  notice  in  Missouri  about  1880. 
In  nearly  every  respect  the  Gano  is  so  closely  identified 
with  the  Ben  Davis  in  its  distribution  and  general  charac- 
teristics that  brief  treatment  is  sufficient.  The  fruit  is 
somewhat  smaller  and  more  highly  colored  than  the  Ben 
Davis.  The  Black  Ben,  given  as  a  separate  variety,  is  con- 
sidered by  many  as  essentially  the  same  as  Gano,  although 
it  may  differ  slightly  in  some  respects.  Gano  and  Black 
Ben  are  now  given  preference  in  planting  over  Ben  Davis 
in  most  regions. 

Yellow  Bellflower. 

Yellow  Bellflower,  if  not  declining,  has  at  least  experi- 
enced very  little  increased  production  in  recent  years.  It 
is  a  leading  variety  in  the  Pajaro  Valley,  or  Watsonville 
district  of  California,  where  it  ranks  next  to  the  Yellow 
Newtown  in  importance.  It  is  here  that  a  very  consider- 
able proportion  of  the  total  commercial  crop  of  this  variety 
in  the  United  States  is  grown,  800,000  boxes  being  packed 
out  in  1919,  and  an  equal  amount  dried. 

The  Yellow  Bellflower  is  an  old  variety.  In  1817  Coxe 
reported  that  the  original  tree  which  was  very  old  at  that 
time,  was  still  standing  at  Crosswicks,  Burlington  County, 
New  Jersey.  Scattered  plantings  are  still  found  in  the 


408  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

states  of  Maine,  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,  Ohio  and 
Michigan,  but  these  are  confined  to  old  orchards.  The 
tree  grows  to  large  size,  particularly  in  the  Pajaro  Valley. 
Fruit  is  usually  large  but  varies  greatly  in  size,  a  detract- 
ing feature  from  a  commercial  standpoint.  Its  tender  skin 
necessitates  care  in  spraying  and  in  handling. 

Russets. 

Russet  is  the  name  ordinarily  given  to  a  great  number  of 
different  varieties  of  russet  apples.  The  Roxbury  and  the 
Golden  Russet  are  most  commonly  found  on  the  market 
and  most  widely  grown.  They  have  long  been  in  general 
cultivation.  Others  of  very  limited  production  are  Eng- 
lish Russet,  Perry  Russet,  French  Russet  (Pomme  Grise), 
Hunt  Russet,  Long  Island  Russet  and  American  Golden 
Russet.  Of  these,  English  Russet  and  Perry  Russet  are 
much  the  most  important,  although  Pomme  Grise  is  very 
well  known  in  Quebec,  Canada. 

The  Roxbury  is  supposed  to  have  originated  at  Roxbury, 
Massachusetts,  about  1620.  It  is  the  most  popular  russet 
apple  and  is  especially  adapted  to  northern  localities,  Xew 
York  and  New  England.  It  has  proved  a  reliable  cropper 
in  western  New  York,  where  it  ranks  next  to  Northern 
Spy  and  above  Tompkins  King  ir  commercial  importance. 
It  does  not  seem  well  adapted  to  the  South.  The  fruit  is 
usually  above  medium  to  large  and  variable  in  form,  the 
sides  often  being  unequal  or  the  form  elliptical.  It  keeps 
until  May  or  June  in  common  storage  and  often  may  be 
held  two  years  in  cold  storage.  It  is  of  good  quality,  but 
since  the  cold  storage  has  come  into  general  use,  other 
more  generally  favored  varieties  have  detracted  from  its 
popularity  and  young  plantings  are  practically  unknown. 


Varieties  of  Apples  409 

The  Golden  Russet  ranks  next  in  importance  in  the 
United  States.  It  is  of  English  origin  and  has  long  been 
generally  disseminated.  It  is  found  extensively  in  the 
older  orchards  in  western  New  York  and  parts  of  New 
England.  Many  trees  of  this  variety  occur  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, Ohio  and  scattered  through  the  home  orchards  of 
the  Middle  West.  The  Golden  Russet  is  an  excellent  stor- 
age variety  and  is  often  exported.  It  is  also  in  demand  for 
shipment  to  southern  markets.  The  tree  is  smaller  than 
that  of  the  Roxbury  Russet  and  generally  less  productive. 
The  fruit  also  is  smaller  but  uniform  in  size  and  less  var- 
iable in  shape.  The  flesh  is  more  sub-acid,  finer  grained 
and  of  richer  flavor  than  the  Roxbury. 

The  English  Russet  is  of  unknown  origin.  It  is  one 
of  the  leading,  if  not  the  leading,  variety  in  Westchester 
and  Putnam  counties,  New  York,  and  is  generally  dis- 
seminated throughout  the  Hudson  Valley  and  southern 
New  England.  Many  carloads  of  this  variety  are  grown 
in  Westchester  County  every  year,  although  the  orchards 
are  not  very  well  taken  care  of.  The  tree  may  be  distin- 
guished from  the  Golden  Russet  by  its  straight  growing 
habit  with  erect  shoots.  According  to  Beach,  the  Golden 
Russet  trees  are  more  vigorous,  spreading,  irregular  and 
bushy  than  the  English  Russet.  The  skin  of  the  Golden 
Russet  does  not  take  a  polish  while  the  English  Russet 
does.  There  are  also  differences  in  form  of  fruit.  The 
flesh  of  the  English  Russet  is  inferior  in  flavor  and  of 
lower  quality  than  the  Golden  Russet.  It  is  not  being 
planted  and  although  a  good  keeper  will  soon  be  eliminated 
commercially. 

Perry  Russet  is  quite  different  from  those  described 
above.  Its  origin  is  unknown  although  thought  to  be 


410  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

Rhode  Island,  as  it  was  originally  called  Ehode  Island 
Russet.  It  first  came  to  commercial  attention  at  Perry, 
Wyoming  County,  New  York,  and  in  Onondaga  County, 
New  York,  where  trees  over  one  hundred  years  old  still 
stand. 

TompTcins  Xing. 

The  Tompkins  King,  commonly  called  King,  first  came 
to  attention  at  Jacksonville,  Tompkins  County,  New  York. 
However,  it  appears  to  have  originated  near  Washington, 
Warren  County,  New  Jersey,  being  brought  to  New  York 
by  Jacob.  Wycoff  in  1804,  who  gave  it  the  name  King. 
This  variety  is  one  of  the  most  popular  of  the  New  York 
varieties  and  has  long  been  known  and  highly  prized  in 
the  commercial  markets  of  the  country. 

The  fruit  is  large  to  very  large  and  is  fairly  uniform  in 
shape  and  size.  It  has  a  beautiful  red  color  and  is  excel- 
lent in  quality  for  either  dessert  or  culinary  purposes.  It 
is  well  adapted  for  marketing,  both  for  fancy  and  general 
trade  and  usually  sells  at  an  advance  over  more  standard 
varieties  in  both  home  and  foreign  markets.  In  season  it 
is  best  in  late  fall  or  early  winter  and  is  seldom  kept  in 
cold  storage  until  after  February.  It  does  not  retain 
flavor  after  midwinter.  Tompkins  King  is  generally  cul- 
tivated throughout  western  New  York  and  has  proved 
profitable,  particularly  when  planted  on  fertile  well  drained 
soils  or  when  top-worked  on  thrifty  hardy  stock.  There 
is  often  considerable  loss  in  windfalls,  on  account  of  the 
large  size  of  the  fruit. 

The  variety  is  less  susceptible  to  apple-scab  than  either 
Baldwin  or  Rhode  Island  Greening.  The  principal  dis- 
advantages of  the  Tompkins  King  as  a  commercial  sort  are 


Varieties  of  Apples  411 

that  it  is  rather  unproductive,  lacks  hardiness,  is  short  lived 
and  rather  hard  to  grow.  In  many  parts  of  the  country 
the  tree  is  very  subject  to  sun-scald,  winter-injury  and 
collar-rot,  and  the  fruit  is  subject  to  water-core.  Certainly 
this  is  a  variety  of  the  highest  quality,  and  local  conditions 
must  determine  whether  it  can  prove  profitable  in  the  face 
of  inherent  weaknesses  in  the  tree. 

Arkansas  (Mammoth  Black  Twig). 

Arkansas,  a  seedling  of  the  Winesap,  originated  in  Ark- 
ansas and  began  to  be  propagated  by  nurserymen  about 
1868,  since  when  it  has  become  widely  disseminated.  Of 
late  years  this  variety  has  been  planted  very  extensively  in 
Virginia,  North  Carolina  and  some  parts  of  the  Middle 
West.  It  is  also  found  commercially  in  the  Northwest. 
It  keeps  well  in  cold  storage  and  is  in  season  from  Decem- 
ber until  May.  "  Black  Twig "  is  a  large  red  apple, 
rather  uniform  in  size  and  only  medium  in  quality.  It 
brings  a  good  price  in  the  market,  but  is  not  recommended 
for  extensive  commercial  planting  as  it  is  rather  slow  com- 
ing into  bearing  and  is  not  a  very  good  annual  bearer.  On 
strong  soils  it  has  a  tendency  to  excessive  wood  growth 
and  to  encourage  fruitfulness  shallow  soils  are  preferable. 
It  has  been  much  advertised  and  propagated,  but  is  hardly 
living  up  to  expectations  and  is  inferior  to  many  other 
standard  kinds. 

Wagener. 

The  Wagener  has  attained  commercial  importance  in 
comparatively  recent  times.  It  was  first  brought  to  public 
attention  in  1847  as  being  a  new  variety  of  considerable 
merit.  The  seedling  trees  from  which  the  original  Wag- 


412  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

ener  tree  sprang  were  bought  by  Abraham  Wagener  in  1796 
and  planted  on  his  place,  now  included  in  the  village  of 
Penn  Yan,  New  York.  Wagener  has  never  attained  any 
commercial  importance  east  of  Michigan,  although  within 
recent  years  it  has  been  planted  very  extensively  in  the 
western  part  of  that  state.  The  other  extensive  plantings 
are  largely  confined  to  the  northwest  apple  regions.  In 
the  Spokane  district  of  Washington,  Wagener  is  a  leading 
variety,  although  in  other  western  irrigated  regions  it  is 
losing  favor.  The  fruit  is  in  season  from  October  to  Feb- 
ruary and  keeps  fairly  well  in  common  storage,  although 
likely  to  scald  in  cold  storage,  particularly  if  the  fruit  has 
not  been  well  thinned. 

The  tree  is  vigorous,  comes  into  bearing  early  and  is  a 
fairly  reliable  cropper.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  short 
lived,  rather  dwarfish  in  form,  and  a  slow  grower  as  it 
attains  full  size.  The  fruit  should  be  thinned,  otherwise 
it  does  not  attain  good  market  qualities.  The  Wagener  is 
recommended  as  a  valuable  filler  to  plant  between  rows 
of  longer  lived  trees,  but  not  for  general  permanent 
planting. 

Arkansas  Black. 

The  Arkansas  Black,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  apples, 
has  come  into  considerable  prominence  commercially 
within  the  last  few  years.  It  originated  in  Benton  County, 
Arkansas,  and  first  bore  fruit  about  1870.  It  attains  its 
greatest  commercial  importance  in  the  Northwest  where  it 
is  boxed,  particularly  in  the  Wenatchee  Valley  of  Washing- 
ton, and  to  a  lesser  degree  in  the  other  irrigated  regions. 
It  is  also  grown  in  the  Ozarks,  but  not  to  any  great  extent. 
Several  young  plantings  occur  in  the  East,  particularly  in 


Varieties  of  Apples  413 

the  Piedmont  district  of  Virginia,  and  it  is  being  recom- 
mended by  experiment  stations  for  planting  in  North 
Carolina  and  Virginia, 

The  tree  is  vigorous,  with  long  slender  branches,  and  is 
very  regular  in  shape.  It  is  hardy  and  grows  to  great  size. 
The  fruit  in  regions  where  this  variety  is  adapted  attains 
a  large  size,  keeps  well  and  commands  a  high  price,  going 
on  the  market  very  late  in  the  spring.  The  color  of  the 
fruit  is  red,  deepening  on  the  exposed  side  to  a  purplish  red 
or  black.  It  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  all  apples  and, 
although  the  trees  require  considerable  time  to  come  into 
bearing,  they  bear  fairly  heavy  crops  when  fully  matured. 

Willow  Twig. 

The  Willow  Twig  draws  its  commercial  importance  from 
old  plantings  in  a  few  limited  areas.  Before  the  advent 
of  cold  storage,  it  was  known  as  a  desirable  variety  for  com- 
mercial use  on  account  of  its  very  long  keeping  qualities. 
Otherwise,  it  never  has  gained  commercial  favor.  Its 
origin  is  uncertain,  but  it  is  thought  to  have  been  in  cul- 
tivation for  over  a  century.  Extensive  plantings  are  in 
Calhoun  County,  Illinois,  also  in  the  northern  Panhandle 
region  of  West  Virginia,  particularly  in  Hancock  County. 
The  fruit  is  in  season  from  January  to  May,  but  like  many 
other  long  keeping  varieties  it  is  not  of  very  good  quality. 
The  tree  is  a  strong  grower,  and  bears  early  and  regularly. 
The  fruit  is  not  attractive  although  it  is  uniform  in  size 
and  shape.  The  prevailing  color  is  red  with  contrasting 
green  showing  through  the  stripes.  The  Willow  Twig  is 
not  generally  recommended  for  commercial  planting,  but 
limited  plantings  have  proved  profitable,  largely  on  account 
of  the  late  keeping  qualities. 


414  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

White  Pearmain  (White  Winter  Pearmain). 

The  White  Winter  Pearmain  is  well  known  to  the  boxed 
apple  and  fruit-stand  trade.  It  retains  considerable  com- 
mercial importance  in  western  Colorado,  California  and 
the  northwestern  irrigated  regions.  The  origin  of  this 
variety  is  obscure  and  for  a  long  time  it  was  confused  with 
several  kinds  of  Pippins.  In  1858,  however,  it  entered 
the  American  Pomological  Society  catalogue  as  White 
Winter  Pearmain.  It  is  a  favorite  dessert  apple  and  is  in 
season  from  December  to  March. 

The  tree  is  vigorous  and  rather  long  lived.  The  fruit  is 
uniform  in  size  and  shape  and  inclined  to  be  roundish  or 
conic  in  form,  somewhat  ribbed,  but  symmetrical.  The 
skin  is  pale  yellow  with  a  shade  of  brownish  red.  The 
flesh  is  firm,  fine  grained  and  of  superior  aromatic  flavor. 
It  is  not  recommended  for  commercial  planting  outside  of 
the  irrigated  districts  in  the  West. 

Red  Limbertwig. 

The  widest  distribution  of  the  Eed  Limbertwig  js  in  the 
southeastern  states,  particularly  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia. 
In  Xorth  Carolina  it  is  of  much  commercial  importance 
and  is  the  leading  variety.  Beach  gives  the  Red  and  the 
Green  Limbertwig  as  separate  varieties,  and  it  is  probably 
the  former  that  is  so  widely  cultivated  in  the  mountains 
of  western  Xorth  Carolina,  although  different  strains, 
spoken  of  sometimes  as  the  Royal,  Sparger,  Brushy  Mount- 
ain or  Improved  Limbertwig,  are  credited  to  this  region. 
Here  it  is  a  rather  deep  red  apple ;  a  good  keeper,  and  well 
adapted  as  a  commercial  variety.  The  tree  is  vigorous  and 
bears  well,  but  has  little  distribution  in  other  regions. 


Varieties  of  Apples  415 

Yates. 

The  Yates  is  quite  widely  distributed  over  the  Piedmont 
section  of  the  South,  but  nowhere  in  the  United  States  is 
it  grown  in  any  commercial  quantities  outside  of  Georgia ; 
here  it  is  undoubtedly  the  leading  commercial  variety  and 
in  many  ways  one  of  the  most  satisfactory.  It  is  well 
known  in  New  Zealand  and  Tasmania.  It  seems  partic- 
ularly adapted  to  Georgia  conditions,  and  is  a  very  heavy 
producer,  bearing  fairly  regularly  heavy  annual  crops. 
The  tree  is  thrifty  and  healthy,  and  comes  into  bearing 
quite  early.  The  fruit  has  long  keeping  qualities,  is  very- 
hard  and  firm,  and  can  be  handled  in  a  careless  manner 
and  still  retain  a  good  appearance.  It  is  small  in  size  and 
not  of  the  highest  quality.  The  Yates  is  very  well  known 
in  southern  markets,  but  practically  unknown  in  the  North. 
It  is  a  profitable  commercial  variety  for  Georgia,  but  is 
not  recommended  for  planting  in  most  regions  on  account 
of  its  small  size  and  lack  of  acquaintance  with  the  consum- 
ing public. 

Stark. 

Stark  is  found  particularly  in  the  commercial  orchards 
of  Maine,  New  York,  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio,  and  dis- 
tributed somewhat  throughout  the  Central  West.  It  was 
first  brought  to  notice  in  Ohio  and  is  said  to  have  orig- 
inated in  that  state.  This  variety  has  received  favorable 
notice  in  a  great  many  regions  and  was  offered  by  most 
of  the  nurserymen  about  1890.  It  is  not  increasing  in 
popularity,  however,  on  account  of  poor  quality. 

The  tree  is  thrifty,  hardy,  a  reliable  cropper  and  very 
productive.  The  fruit  is  smooth,  uniform  and  keeps  well. 


416  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

The  skin  is  often  pale  in  color  and  not  attractive,  some- 
times having  but  very  little  red  coloring,  yet  at  times  under 
favorable  conditions  being  nearly  covered  with  red.  The 
fruit  stands  handling  well  because  it  is  very  firm  and  has  a 
thick  tough  skin.  It  keeps  till  June  in  ordinary  storage 
and  for  that  reason  is  regarded  as  a  good  apple  for  export 
trade.  The  variety  has  a  wide  range  of  adaptibility  in 
regard  to  soil  and  climate  and  is  recommended  for  planting 
in  cases  where  orchards  are  long  distances  from  market 
and  the  climate  is  rather  severe.  Many  other  varieties  of 
its  season  are  much  superior  in  quality  and  this  will  pre- 
vent the  Stark  from  attaining  any  great  popularity. 

Hubbardston. 

The  Hubbardston,  which  originated  at  Hubbardston, 
Massachusetts,  has  long  been  known  to  the  commercial 
grower.  Kenrick,  as  long  ago  as  1832,  recommended  that 
it  was  one  of  the  most  desirable  varieties  for  Massachusetts. 
The  commercial  importance  of  the  Hubbardston,  although 
considerable,  has  never  been  great  in  any  one  region.  It 
is  a  fairly  good  variety  for  commercial  planting  in  the 
more  northern  sections  of  the  country,  but  varies  remark- 
ably in  market  quality,  size  and  color,  smoothness  of  skin 
and  flavor.  For  this  reason,  it  is  known  locally  in  many 
places  by  other  names,  formally  it  ripens  between  the 
autumn  and  the  late  winter  varieties,  comes  into  bearing 
early,  is  a  heavy  cropper  and  fairly  annual  bearer.  It  is 
somewhat  susceptible  to  winter-injury  and  apple-canker 
and  seems  to  be  more  satisfactory  when  grafted  on  to  more 
hardy  varieties  such  as  Northern  Spy.  The  quality  of  the 
fruit  is  excellent  for  dessert,  but  is  excelled  by  many  other 
varieties  for  culinary  purposes.  It  is  an  uncertain  keeper, 


Varieties  of  Apples  417 

varying  greatly  in  this  respect  according  to  tiic  regions 
where  grown.  The  fruit  from  western  New  York  keeps 
better  apparently  than  that  from  the  Hudson  Valley.  The 
crop  should  usually  be  thinned  since  there  is  a  tendency  for 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  fruit  to  be  undersized  and 
poorly  colored.  The  Hubbardston  soon  loses  its  flavor  in 
common  storage.  Few  authorities  now  recommend  it  for 
commercial  planting,  although  where  well  adapted  it  would 
seem  valuable  for  planting  as  a  filler. 

Tolman  Sweet. 

The  Tolman  Sweet  is  probably  the  best  known  sweet 
apple  grown  for  commercial  purposes,  and  one  which 
deserves  even  more  attention  than  is  at  present  given  to  it. 
It  has  long  been  grown  throughout  New  England,  New 
York,  Michigan  and  more  northern  states,  although  its 
origin  is  unknown.  The  Tolman  Sweet  is  best  known 
commercially  in  the  New  England  states. 

The  tree  is  vigorous,  upright,  open,  with  long  branches 
and  a  form  adapted  to  bearing  an  abundance  of  fruit.  It 
is  exceptionally  productive,  long  lived,  and  very  hardy,  in 
fact  one  of  the  hardiest  of  all  varieties.  It  comes  into 
bearing  at  an  early  age  and  the  fruit  hangs  well  on  the 
tree,  is  very  uniform  in  grade  and  suffers  little  in  loss 
from  culls  or  drops.  The  fruit,  although  medium  or  below 
medium  in  size,  is  attractive  for  a  yellow  apple  and  is 
highly  esteemed  for  certain  culinary  purposes,  especially 
pickling,  boiling,  and  baking.  It  is  recommended  as  a 
good  commercial  variety,  although  as  yet  the  market  for  it 
is  rather  undeveloped.  Like  the  Eusset  it  is  highly 
prized  for  cider  and  its  other  good  qualities  are  worthy  of 
attention. 


418  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

Winter  Banana. 

Winter  Banana  originated  near  Adamsboro,  Indiana, 
about  1876,  and  was  first  introduced  by  a  nursery  in  Mon- 
roe, Michigan,  in  1890.  This  variety  has  been  widely  dis- 
seminated especially  in  the  Northwest,  where  it  has 
attained  much  commercial  importance.  There  are  consid- 
erable young  plantings  of  it  throughout  the  East. 

The  fruit  is  large,  clear  pale  yellow  in  color  except  for 
a  pinkish-red  blush.  The  Winter  Banana  is  a  dessert 
apple  depending  on  the  fancy  trade  demand  for  its  pop- 
ularity. It  is  classed  as  a  winter  apple,  but  matures  rather 
early  and  should  be  eaten  before  January  first  as  it  loses 
much  of  its  flavor  after  that  date.  The  tree  is  productive 
and  well  thought  of  in  the  Virginias  and  southern  Penn- 
sylvania districts,  although  on  account  of  the  delicacy  of 
the  fruit  it  is  not  recommended  for  very  extensive  com- 
mercial planting.  It  is  a  good  apple  for  the  home  orchard 
and  limited  commercial  planting. 

Missouri  Pippin  (Plate  XXIV). 

The  Missouri  Pippin  originated  at  Kingsville,  Missouri, 
from  seed  planted  about  1840.  After  1860  it  began  to  be 
widely  disseminated  through  Missouri,  Kansas,  and  the 
middle  western  states  and  is  to-day  one  of  the  well  known 
market  apples  in  the  Middle  West.  It  has  been  planted 
extensively  in  northwest  irrigated  districts,  particularly 
among  the  earlier  plantings,  but  has  lost  favor  in  the  West 
in  recent  years.  It  is  not  being  planted  in  commercial 
orchards  of  any  region  at  the  present  time. 

The  principal  advantage  of  the  Missouri  Pippin  is  that 
it  comes  into  bearing  very  early  and  yields  heavily.  The 


Varieties  of  Apples  419 

fruit  has  a  good  color,  but  is  second  rate  in  quality  and  re- 
quires considerable  thinning  to  bring  it  up  to  good  market 
quality.  It  is  in  season  from  October  to  April.  This  va- 
riety is  not  grown  throughout  the  East  and  is  not  now  rec- 
ommended for  commercial  planting  in  any  part  of  the 
country. 

Northwestern  Greening. 

The  Northwestern  Greening  originated  in  Waupaca 
County,  Wisconsin,  and  was  first  introduced  by  E.  W. 
Daniels  in  1872.  It  is  widely  disseminated  through  the 
north  central  states  and  is  one  of  the  leading  varieties  in 
many  sections.  It  is  also  planted  to  a  considerable  extent 
in  some  of  the  larger  orchards  of  the  Shenandoah-Cumber- 
land  district  and  some  of  the  irrigated  sections  of  the 
Northwest  where  it  finds  little  favor,  however.  It  is 
not  grown  commercially  in  New  York  or  the  New  Eng- 
land states. 

The  Northwestern  Greening  is  a  large  green  apple, 
highly  attractive  in  color,  but  lacking  uniformity.  It  is 
especially  adapted  to  planting  in  cool  regions  since  the  tree 
is  very  hardy.  The  fruit  has  rather  poor  culinary  quality, 
but  rather  high  market  qualities.  In  the  Shenandoah- 
Cumberland  region,  this  variety  yields  well,  goes  on  the 
market  early  and  brings  high  prices.  The  tree  is  hardy, 
vigorous  and  productive.  It  is  recommended  for  planting 
in  a  limited  way  commercially  in  the  north  central  states 
and  parts  of  the  East. 

Rambo. 

The  Rambo  is  an  old  variety,  the  origin  of  which  is 
unknown.  As  long  ago  as  1817,  however,  it  was  much 


420  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

cultivated  in  Delaware,  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey. 
The  Rambo  is  grown  in  considerable  commercial  quantities 
throughout  parts  of  Ohio  and  the  Central  West.  It  is 
found  also  among  the  old  orchards  of  the  East.  It  is 
surpassed  by  several  varieties  both  for  culinary  and  dessert 
purposes.  It  is  attractive  when  well  colored,  being  a  bright 
red  with  yellow  ground  color,  but  very  often  this  red  color 
is  largely  lacking.  Under  ordinary  conditions,  much  of 
the  fruit  is  not  of  very  good  market  quality.  The  tree  is 
more  or  less  subject  to  winter-injury  and  breaks  easily 
under  a  heavy  load  of  fruit.  The  Rambo  is  decreasing  in 
commercial  importance  in  competition  with  better  sorts. 

Ortley. 

The  Ortley  has  recently  attained  prominence  in  the 
boxed  apple  regions.  It  is  one  of  the  important  varieties 
of  the  Hood  River  Valley,  that  section  producing  about 
100  cars  in  1919.  It  is  grown  considerably  in  other  west- 
ern irrigated  sections.  It  is  highly  prized  as  a  dessert 
apple  and  is  well  known  to  the  fruit-stand  trade.  Ortley 
is  one  of  the  leading  varieties  in  Tasmania  and  Australia. 
It  long  ago  lost  popularity  among  growers  of  the  East,  but 
now  seems  to  be  gaining  in  favor  in  the  West.  It  is  an  old 
New  Jersey  variety,  described  by  Coxe  under  the  name  of 
Woolman's  Long  Pippin  and  was  first  named  Ortley  in 
1825  when  specimens  of  this  variety  were  sent  to  London. 
In  the  East  it  is  not  found  outside  of  the  home  orchards, 
and  is  rarely  planted  commercially  except  in  irrigated 
regions.  It  is  a  large  pale  yellow  apple  of  the  Yellow 
Bellflower  type  and  seems  to  attain  better  flavor  in  more 
southern  and  western  climates.  Ortley  is  not  a  very  heavy 


Varieties  of  Apples  481 

cropper  and  the  fruit  is  rather  easily  bruised  and  tender. 
It  is  especially  valuable  for  dessert  use. 

Red  Canada. 

This  is  a  red  winter  apple,  belonging  to  the  same  group 
as  Baldwin  and  Esopus.  It  is  thought  to  have  originated 
in  New  England  and  was  described  by  pomologists  about 
one  hundred  years  ago.  The  principal  commercial  plant- 
ings of  this  variety  occur  in  Michigan  where  it  is  known 
as  Steel's  Eed.  It  is  well  adapted  to  general  and  special 
markets  and  brings  high  prices.  It  should  be  grown  on 
fertile  or  sandy  soils,  where  it  develops  high  flavor,  color, 
and  market  quality.  It  is  not  adapted  to  the  South.  In 
ordinary  storage,  it  will  keep  until  January  or  April.  The 
principal  disadvantages  of  this  variety  are  that  it  is  a 
rather  shy  bearer,  lacks  hardiness  and  is  but  a  moderate 
grower.  It  is  not  recommended  for  commercial  planting 
and  will  not  prove  as  profitable  as  more  standard  and 
heavier  cropping  varieties. 

Monmouth. 

Monmouth  reaches  considerable  commercial  importance 
only  in  the  irrigated  districts  of  Washington,  particularly 
the  Yakima  Valley  where  it  is  known  in  the  markets  by 
the  name  of  Red  Cheek  Pippin.  It  is  a  native  of  Mon- 
mouth County,  New  Jersey,  and  has  long  been  in  general 
cultivation  throughout  the  East  and  Central  West.  It  is 
grown  principally  only  in  the  home  orchards,  there  being 
few  commercial  plantings  outside  of  the  Northwest. 

In  season  it  ripens  in  common  storage  by  November, 
while  in  cold  storage  its  season  may  extend  to  January. 
The  tree  is  hardy,  long  lived,  comes  into  bearing  moder- 


422  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

ately  young  and  is  a  fairly  reliable  cropper.  The  fruit  is 
of  good  market  quality,  but  if  not  well  thinned  there  is 
likely  to  be  considerable  loss  in  low  grade  fruit.  The  fruit 
is  medium  to  large.  Its  skin  is  yellow,  faintly  shaded  with 
red  and  in  the  case  of  highly  colored  specimens  the  fruit 
has  a  pinkish-red  blush.  The  variety  is  not  important 
commercially. 

Collins. 

The  Collins  originated  about  1865  near  Fayetteville, 
Arkansas,  and  has  only  recently  been  introduced  to  com- 
mercial growers.  It  is  grown  considerably  as  a  commercial 
variety  in  northwestern  Arkansas,  but  is  not  generally 
recognized  in  any  other  district.  The  tree  is  a  good 
grower,  hardy,  and  has  a  reputation  of  being  productive. 
The  fruit  is  large,  of  excellent  keeping  quality  and  is  in 
season  from  January  to  June.  The  flesh  is  white,  rather 
coarse,  only  moderately  juicy,  and  rather  lacking  in  flavor. 
Highly  colored  specimens  are  bright,  dark  red,  with  a 
contrasting  clear  yellow  ground  color.  The  Collins  has 
some  attractive  market  qualities,  but  is  not  generally 
recommended  for  commercial  planting.  There  seems  no 
doubt  that  Ben  Davis  is  a  more  worthy  and  reliable  crop- 
per and  is  of  equal  market  quality.  Collins  does  not  bid 
fair  to  displace  any  other  commercial  variety. 

Pumpkin  Sweet  (Pound  Sweet"). 

Pumpkin  Sweet,  more  commonly  known  as  Pound 
Sweet,  is  one  of  the  best  known,  easiest  grown  and  most 
attractive  of  the  sweet  varieties.  It  originated  in  Con- 
necticut and  has  been  known  in  Xew  York  for  about  three- 


Varieties  of  Apples  423 

quarters  of  a  century.  It  is  not  grown  commercially 
except  in  western  New  York  and  more  northern  localities. 
The  fruit  is  large  to  very  large.  Well  colored  specimens 
become  very  yellow  and  sometimes  are  faintly  bronzed  on 
the  exposed  cheeks,  but  are  never  marked  with  red. 

Pumpkin  Sweet  is  esteemed  as  one  of  the  best  sweet 
apples  for  baking,  canning,  and  stewing  with  quinces,  and 
is  prized  by  some  for  dessert  on  account  of  its  peculiar 
flavor.  It  usually  sells  well  in  special  markets  and  there 
is  a  limited  general  demand  for  it.  The  fruit  is  in  season 
from  October  to  January,  but  does  not  keep  well  in  com- 
mon storage.  The  tree  is  a  strong  grower,  long  lived, 
hardy  and  productive.  It  thrives  particularly  well  in 
gravelly  or  sandy  loam,  with  well  drained  subsoil.  There 
is  often  considerable  loss  from  water-core  and  from  wind- 
falls, although  other  than  this  the  loss  from  culls  or  under- 
sized apples  is  usually  small.  The  variety  is  recommended 
only  where  the  market  demands  a  sweet  apple. 

Wolf  River. 

Wolf  River  is  a  variety  of  the  Aport  group,  resembling 
the  Alexander  in  form  and  color,  although  averaging  larger 
in  size.  It  has  largely  superseded  the  Alexander  in  the 
north  central  states,  although  both  apples  are  popular  in 
these  regions  on  account  of  their  extreme  hardiness.  The 
variety  originated  near  Wolf  River,  Fremont  County,  Wis- 
consin, and  was  entered  in  the  American  Pomological 
Society  lists  in  1881.  The  tree  is  very  hardy,  a  good 
grower,  but  a  light  cropper.  The  fruit  is  very  large  and 
often  somewhat  irregular  in  form.  Flesh  is  coarse,  tender, 
juicy,  but  low  in  quality.  Wolf  River  apples  sometimes 
sell  well  on  local  markets  because  of  their  attractive  appear- 


424  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

ance.  The  tree  is  not  generally  recommended  for  planting 
either  in  home  or  commercial  orchards  on  account  of  poor 
quality,  light  yields  and  unprofitableness.  However,  many 
northern  Michigan  and  Wisconsin  growers  have  found  this 
variety  very  profitable. 

Button. 

The  Sutton,  originating  in  the  town  of  Sutton,  Massa- 
chusetts, was  first  brought  to  notice  by  the  Worcester 
County  Horticultural  Society  in  1848  and  was  included  in 
the  American  Pomological  catalogue  in  1877.  It  has  not 
attained  commercial  importance  until  late  years.  At  the 
present  time,  it  is  being  planted  quite  extensively  in  the 
Hudson  Valley  and  some  parts  of  New  England,  and  its 
dissemination  seems  to  be  on  the  increase.  It  has'  been 
grown  in  Michigan  under  the  name  of  Morris  Red. 

The  Sutton  tree  closely  resembles  the  Hubbardston,  of 
which  it  is  supposed,  to  be  a  seedling,  but  is  much  more 
vigorous  and  healthy  .x  The  fruit  is  of  uniform  size,  sym- 
metrical, has  a  beautiful  red  color  and  is  excellent  for 
dessert.  The  variety  is  especially  adapted  to  the  Hudson 
Valley  where  fancy  trade  apples  are  grown.  The  tree  is  a 
strong  grower  and  productive  but  has  a  tendency  to  bear 
biennially.  Sutton  is  not  generally  recommended  for 
planting  on  any  extended  commercial  scale  and  should  be 
grown  only  in  those  regions  near  city  markets  where  the 
fancy  trade  varieties  are  in  greatest  demand. 

Ingram. 

Ingram  was  originated  by  Martin  Ingram,  near  Spring- 
field, Missouri,  about  1850.  It  has  attained  considerable 
commercial  importance  throughout  the  Ozarks.  Large 


Varieties  of  Apples  425 

plantings  have  been  made  in  the  more  southern  sections  of 
Missouri.  The  tree  is  fairly  vigorous,  but  is  likely  to 
bear  small  fruit  unless  thinned.  The  fruit  is  of  medium 
quality  and  its  chief  asset  is  its  good  keeping  quality.  In 
spite  of  much  advertising,  it  has  not  proved  very  popular 
and  is  not  now  recommended  for  commercial  planting.  It 
does  not  warrant  an  important  place  in  commercial 
orchards,  even  in  Missouri. 

Black  Gilliflower. 

This  variety  is  generally  known  to  the  trade  and  appears 
in  market  quotation  as  Gilliflower  or  Gills.  It  originated 
in  New  England  prior  to  1800  and  has  long  been  a  market 
sort  in  a  very  limited  way.  There  are  very  few  orchard 
blocks  of  Gilliflower  in  the  country,  but  it  is  widely  dissem- 
inated in  both  home  and  commercial  orchards,  particularly 
in  New  York  and  New  England.  The  tree  is  hardy,  vig- 
orous and  long  lived. 

The  fruit  is  of  medium  size  and  very  uniform  in  size, 
shape  and  color.  It  is  a  dessert  apple  which  is  very  dis- 
tinct in  color,  form  and  flavor.  The  color  is  green,  usually 
completely  covered  with  red,  which  becomes  very  dark  or 
almost  black.  The  flesh  has  a  peculiar  flavor  and  aroma, 
but  soon  becomes  dry  and  mealy.  The  fruit  is  often 
borne  on  the  ends  of  the  twigs  which  makes  harvesting 
difficult.  It  usually  brings  a  high  price  and  particularly 
in  southern  markets,  on  account  of  its  peculiar  aroma, 
flavor,  and  attractive  color.  The  Gilliflower  is  preferred 
by  some  to  all  other  varieties  as  a  dessert  apple,  but  its 
popularity  is  very  limited.  It  is  not  recommended  for 
commercial  planting,  except  in  a  very  limited  way.  It 
is  a  good  variety  for  the  home  orchard. 


426  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

Lady. 

The  Lady  apple  is  known  to  have  been  in  cultivation  for 
well  over  three  hundred  years  and  is  thought  to  have  orig- 
inated in  France.  It  is  often  seen  on  fruit-stands  more 
for  decoration  than  for  eating  purposes.  It  is  a  strikingly 
beautiful  little  apple,  especially  adapted  for  decorative  pur- 
poses. It  grows  in  profusion  in  many  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, particularly  in  the  Piedmont  district  of  Virginia 
where  it  is  produced  commercially  in  limited  quantities. 
Limited  plantings  are  also  found  in  New  York  state  and 
the  Northwest.  The  Lady  apple  often  tops  the  market  in 
price,  having  sold  on  the  New  York  markets  for  as  high 
as  $25.00  a  barrel  when  standard  sorts  were  bringing 
about  one-fifth  as  much. 

The  variety  seems  to  do  best  in  Virginia  where  it  grows 
to  perfection.  In  size  it  is  not  much  larger  than  a  crab- 
apple  and  it  is  very  expensive  to  grow  and  harvest.  On 
the  whole,  it  is  not  to  be  considered  more  profitable  than 
the  more  standard  varieties.  Furthermore,  it  is  not 
recommended  for  general  planting  since  a  few  acres  would 
practically  flood  the  market  for  this  type  of  fruit.  Prop- 
erly handled  it  may  be  held  in  cold  storage  far  into  the 
summer,  but  there  are  few  demands  for  it  after  the  holiday 
season.  The  tree  is  moderately  vigorous.  The  fruit  is 
exceedingly  small,  somewhat  lacking  in  uniformity;  flesh 
is  white,  tender,  juicy,  and  of  high  dessert  quality. 

EARLY  AND  FALL  VARIETIES 

Oldenburg  (commercial  name,  Duchess}. 

Oldenburg  is  probably  the  leading  early  variety  grown 
in  the  United  States.  It  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of 


Varieties  of  Apples  427 

Russian  apples  and  was  introduced  into  this  country  from 
England  by  the  Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society  about 
.1835.  The  extreme  hardiness  of  this  variety  proved  its 
worth  and  was  responsible  for  the  introduction  of  other 
Eussian  sorts.  It  is  superior  in  hardiness  to  the  Baldwin, 
Rhode  Island  Greening  and  Northern  Spy. 

The  tree  is  easily  grown,  requires  little  pruning  and  is 
an  early  and  heavy  bearer.  The  variety  is  widely  known 
throughout  the  North  and  East,  and  particularly  in  the 
region  bordering  the  Great  Lakes.  It  is  in  Wisconsin, 
Michigan  and  New  York  that  it  assumes  greatest  com- 
mercial importance.  Oldenburg  is  produced  in  carload 
lots  in  these  states  and  particularly  along  the  Ontario  Lake 
shore  in  western  New  York  where  there  are  many  plant- 
ings of  commercial  importance. 

The  fruit  is  medium  to  large  and  is  uniform  in  shape 
and  size,  with  firm,  crisp,  juicy  flesh.  It  hangs  on  the 
tree  well.  When  properly  grown  and  handled,  it  stands 
shipment  well.  The  fruit  brings  good  prices  and  is  unsur- 
passed for  its  culinary  qualities.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  early  apples  for  commercial  purposes. 

Wealthy. 

Wealthy  originated  as  a  seedling  at  Excelsior,  Minne- 
sota, from  seed  of  the  Cherry  Crab  obtained  from  Maine 
about  1860.  It  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  hardier 
varieties  adapted  to  the  cold  climates  of  the  northernmost 
states.  It  has  wide  distribution,  particularly  in  northern 
Illinois,  northern  Iowa,  Wisconsin,  and  Michigan,  being 
one  of  the  'leading,  if  not  the  leading,  variety  of  these 
regions.  In  New  York  and  Maine,  it  is  grown  in  consid- 
erable commercial  quantities  but  in  these  states  it  is  of 


428  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

less  relative  importance  as  compared  with  other  varieties. 
Wealthy  is  an  early  sort  highly  prized  in  Xew  Jersey  and 
Delaware. 

The  fruit  is  bright  red,  of  large  size  and  of  good  market 
quality,  selling  well  in  most  markets.  It  is  normally  con- 
sumed before  November  and  is  essentially  a  fall  apple, 
although  it  may  be  kept  into  the  early  winter  in  cold  stor- 
age. Criticism  is  sometimes  made  of  the  Wealthy  on  the 
ground  of  uneven  ripening  and  tendency  to  considerable 
variation  in  size  and  lack  of  color,  Jmt  with  good  care  it 
has  proved  profitable  in  the  regions  described  above.  It 
is  especially  adapted  for  planting  as  a  filler. 

Yellow  Transparent. 

Yellow  Transparent  was  imported  from  Russia  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in  1870.  It 
has  since  been  disseminated  from  coast  to  coast  and  is  now 
the  leading  very  early  commercial  variety.  It  is  grown 
extensively,  particularly  in  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia, 
West  Virginia,  the  Ohio  Valley  and  especially  in  the  early 
apple  districts  of  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  Ohio  and  various 
other  states. 

Since  it  is  about  the  first  apple  on  the  market,  it  is 
sought  for  dessert  and  is  highly  prized  for  culinary  pur- 
poses. It  grows  to  good  size,  is  productive  and  takes  on  a 
good  clear  yellow  color  before  becoming  over-ripe.  The 
crop  ripens  over  a  period  of  three  or  four  weeks  and  more 
than  one  picking  is  usually  necessary.  Yellow  Transpar- 
ent brings  a  good  price  on  the  market  and  thus  far  has 
proved  very  profitable  commercially. 


Varieties  of  Apples  429 

Twenty  Ounce. 

The  Twenty  Ounce  has  proved  one  of  the  most  popular 
of  fall  varieties  for  commercial  planting.  Its  origin  is 
unknown,  but  it  was  first  brought  to  attention  when  fruit 
grown  in  Cayuga  County,  New  York,  was  exhibited  before 
the  Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society  about  seventy 
years  ago.  It  is  one  of  the  most  important  fall  varieties 
grown  in  New  York,  being  particularly  important  in  Mon- 
roe and  other  western  counties  in  the  Lake  Shore  region. 

The  fruit  is  large  and  attractive,  being  green  and  later 
yellowish  with  broad  stripes  and  splashes  of  red.  In  New 
York  it  is  in  season  from  September  to  early  winter,  while 
in  New  Jersey  and  Delaware  it  comes  on  the  market  in 
August.  The  Twenty  Ounce  keeps  very  well  for  a  fall 
variety  and  stands  shipping  well.  It  is  usually  handled 
without  going  into  cold  storage,  although  it  may  be  kept 
until  midwinter  in  storage.  The  fruit  is  fairly  uniform 
in  size,  is  of  good  marketable  quality  and  is  well  known  in 
eastern  commercial  markets  where  it  brings  good  prices. 
The  tree  is  vigorous,  with  erect  main  branches,  but  more 
or  less  willowy  and  drooping  laterals.  The  trunk  and 
larger  limbs  are  especially  subject  to  sun-scald  and  canker. 
Closer  planting  may  be  practiced  than  with  Baldwin, 
Rhode  Island  Greening,  Northern  Spy,  York,  or  other  var- 
ieties, which  attain  considerable  size.  Twenty  Ounce  is 
recommended  for  commercial  planting  in  Delaware,  New 
Jersey,  and  many  parts  of  New  England  and  New  York. 

Gravenstein. 

Gravenstein  was  introduced  into  this  country  from  cen- 
tral Europe  early  in  the  nineteenth  century.  It  is  of 


430  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

much  commercial  importance  for  a  variety  of  its  season, 
which  in  the  Northeast  is  from  September  to  November. 
The  largest  commercial  plantings  of  this  variety  are  in 
Sonoma  County,  California,  which  ships  annually  about 
500  cars  of  boxed  Gravensteins.  Gravensteins  are  grown 
in  a  limited  way  through  the  other  far  west  and  northwest 
districts.  Commercial  plantings  also  occur  in  New  Jer- 
sey, Delaware,  the  Hudson  Valley,  New  England  and  are 
particularly  important  in  Nova  Scotia,  The  fruit  is 
found  on  the  New  York  market  during  the  autumn  in 
large  quantities. 

Gravenstein  is  of  very  attractive  appearance  and  of 
excellent  quality.  It  is  practically  unexcelled  for  culin- 
ary purposes  and  is  highly  prized  as  a  dessert  apple,  being 
usually  in  strong  demand  and  commanding  good  prices. 
There  is  likely  to  be  considerable  loss  from  dropping  since 
the  fruit  does  not  color  evenly  and  requires  two  or  three 
pickings.  The  tree  comes  into  bearing  moderately  early 
and  is  a  fairly  reliable  cropper.  It  is  large,  vigorous,  and 
hardy,  and  adapted  to  many  climates.  The  Gravenstein' s 
place  as  a  commercial  variety  is  assured. 

Mclntosh. 

The  Mclntosh  belongs  to  the  Fameuse  group  and  is 
adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  localities,  although  the  districts 
where  it  grows  commercially  are  limited.  It  originated  as 
a  chance  seedling  on  the  Mclntosh  farm  in  Dundas  County, 
Ontario.  Allan  Mclntosh  began  its  propagation  about 
1870.  Its  dissemination  and  cultivation  is  on  the  increase. 
In  season  it  varies  from  an  early>  fall  apple  in  the  South 
to  late  fall  or  early  winter  apple  in  Canada,  In  New  York 


Varieties  of  Apples  •  431 

it  begins  to  ripen  about  October  first.  The  fruit  is  very 
attractive  in  appearance  and  the  flesh  is  tender,  perfumed 
and  delicious.  It  may  be  kept  in  cold  storage  until  the 
first  of  the  year.  The  fruit  is  susceptible  to  scab  and  has 
a  tendency  to  ripen  unevenly  and  to  drop.  The  trees  are 
generally  hardy,  come  into  bearing  young  and  have  a  tend- 
ency to  biennial  bearing.  The  variety  is  grown  commer- 
cially in  northern  New  York,  Vermont,  particularly  on 
Grand  Isle,  in  Lake  Champlain.  Considerable  commercial 
plantings  are  in  the  Hudson  Valley,  southern  New  Hamp- 
shire, Massachusetts,  and  Connecticut,  where  it  does  par- 
ticularly well.  It  is  the  leading  commercial  variety  of 
the  Bitter  Root  Valley  of  Montana  and  is  grown  in  the 
commercial  orchards  of  Idaho,  Washington  and  British 
Columbia.  It  usually  commands  a  very  good  price  in  the 
market  and  is  highly  prized,  especially  for  dessert  pur- 
poses. Nearly  all  Mclntosh  apples  enter  commercial 
channels. 

Maiden  Blush  (Lady  Blush,  Red  Cheek). 

Maiden  Blush  is  one  of  the  most  widely  grown  of  all  fall 
apples  and  is  found  to  some  extent  in  practically  all  the 
central,  eastern  and  southern  apple-growing  states.  It  is 
grown  in  considerable  commercial  quantities  in  northwest 
Arkansas,  Missouri,  Illinois,  Indiana  and  Ohio,  and  to  a 
lesser  extent  commercially  in  New  York  and  the  Atlantic 
seaboard  states.  It  was  well  known  in  the  Philadelphia 
market  over  one  hundred  years  ago. 

The  tree  is  medium  in  size  and  moderately  vigorous, 
comes  into  bearing  young  and  is  a  reliable  cropper. 
Maiden  Blush  is  a  standard  market  variety  and  usually 


432  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

sells  above  those  of  its  class.  It  is  good  in  quality  and  is 
valued  for  many  uses.  It  makes  very  white  evaporated 
stock. 

In  season  it  varies  from  a  summer  apple  in  the  Ozarks 
to  a  fall  apple  in  the  North,  keeping  until  December  15th 
in  New  York.  The  fruit  is  a  beautiful  pale  yellow  color 
with  crimson  cheek,  which  adds  to  its  popularity.  Its 
disadvantages  are  that  it  is  not  a  particularly  good  ship- 
per and  keeper,  and  ripens  somewhat  unevenly,  with  a 
tendency  to  drop.  Its  place  in  the  commercial  orchard 
is  assured,  although  its  production  is  not  likely  to  in-1 


Fameuse  (Snow). 

The  Fameuse  is  thought  by  some  to  be  of  French  origin. 
It  was  grown  in  Quebec  at  a  very  early  date,  possibly  as 
long  ago  as  1600.  It  has  long  been  recognized  as  an 
important  commercial  variety  and  is  one  of  the  most  valu- 
able dessert  apples  of  its  season.  It  is  well  distributed 
throughout  the  northern  states,  particularly  Michigan, 
New  York,  and  New  England,  and  is  especially  adapted  to 
cold  climates.  Fameuse  is  grown  commercially  princi- 
pally in  the  Champlain  district  of  New  York  and  Ver- 
mont, the  St.  Lawrence  Valley,  and  in  the  commercial  dis- 
tricts of  Wisconsin,  Michigan  and  eastern  Canada.  It  is 
found  in  home  orchards  in  many  northern  localities.  It 
is  well  known  in  the  market  and  during  its  season,  which 
is  from  October  to  January,  it  is  in  good  demand  and 
usually  commands  high  prices. 

The  fruit  is  particularly  susceptible  to  apple-scab  fun- 
gus. It  is  small  to  medium  in  size.  The  flesh  is  white, 
very  tender,  aromatic,  juicy,  and  when  ripe  is  mildly  sub- 


Varieties  of  Apples  433 

acid.  The  skin  is  bright  red,  deepening  to  an  almost 
purplish  black.  The  tree  is  hardy  and  vigorous.  The 
Fameuse  is  not  being  extensively  planted  in  the  United 
States,  its  place  being  largely  taken  by  the  Mclntosh. 

Williams  (Williams  Early  Red,  Williams  Favorite}. 

Williams  originated  in  Roxbury,  Massachusetts,  nearly 
175  years  ago.  It  was  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Horticultural  Society  and  named  Williams  in 
1830,  and  was  entered  in  the  American  Pomological 
Society  catalogue  in  1854. 

It  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  varieties  for  the  commer- 
cial market  and  is  being  planted  to  a  considerable  extent 
throughout  New  England,  the  Hudson  Valley,  New  Jer- 
sey, Delaware  and  Maryland.  It  is  also  recommended  for 
planting  throughout  the  South.  In  season  it  varies  from 
September  1st  in  New  England  to  July  1st  in  Carolina. 
Williams  is  a  large  bright  red  apple  of  very  attractive 
appearance  and  with  a  pleasant,  mild  sub-acid  flavor, 
unless  over-ripe,  when  it  becomes  dry.  It  comes  into 
bearing  early  and  yields  fair  to  good  annual  crops  which 
bring  high  prices  in  the  home  commercial  market.  The 
apple  is  highly  prized  for  export.  It  is  recommended  as 
a  good  variety  to  plant  where  an  early  commercial  sort  is 
desired. 

Benoni. 

Benoni  is  an  early  apple  of  commercial  importance  in 
the  Middle  West.  It  originated  at  Dedham,  Massachus- 
etts, and  was  introduced  about  1832.  It  is  a  fine  dessert 
apple  of  excellent  quality,  inclined  to  be  conical  in  shape. 
The  flesh  is  yellow,  fine  grained,  crisp,  juicy,  and  pleas- 


434  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

antly  sub-acid.  It  begins  to  ripen  early  in  August  and 
extends  into  September.  The  tree  is  large  and  vigorous 
and  comes  into  heavy  bearing  -moderately  young  and  yields 
good  biennial  crops.  Its  commercial  production  in  carload 
quantities  is  mostly  confined  to  the  early  apple  section  of 
southern  Illinois,  particularly  Johnson  and  Union  counties 
where  it  ripens  the  first  of  July.  Its  production  is  not  in- 
creasing and  it  finds  little  favor  in  the  East. 

Bonum  (Magnum  Bonum}. 

Bonum  is  well  known  in  the  Piedmont  district  of  Vir- 
ginia and  North  Carolina,  It  is  highly  prized  in  these 
states  as  a  commercial  variety  and  invariably  commands 
good  prices.  It  originated  in  Davidson  County,  North 
Carolina,  early  in  the  last  century,  but  has  never  been  dis- 
seminated to  any  extent  outside  of  the  Piedmont  region. 
It  is  important  commercially  in  several  North  Carolina 
counties  and  particularly  in  Rappahannock  and  Patrick 
counties,  Virginia,  where  it  is  planted  in  solid  blocks  and 
produced  in  carload  lots. 

The  tree  is  moderately  vigorous  and  comes  into  bearing 
early.  The  fruit  is  of  medium  size,  superior  quality,  with 
yellow  skin,  mostly  covered  with  crimson  and  dark  red. 
The  flesh  is  white,  often  stained  next  to  the  skin.  It  is 
tender,  juicy,  and  has  a  peculiar  aroma.  It  is  highly 
prized  as  a  dessert  in  the  southern  markets. 

Its  season  extends  from  September  to  about  December 
1st.  This  is  a  profitable  variety  only  in  certain  regions 
and  does  not  yield  as  heavily  as  the  more  standard  sorts. 
It  also  has  a  tendency  to  drop  and  has  a  short  picking  sea- 
son. Its  place  in  the  commercial  orchard  is  assured, 
although  it  will  never  be  grown  in  considerable  quantities 


Varieties  of  Apples  435 

on  account  of  its  season.     It  is  very  valuable  for  home 
orchards  of  the  South. 

Red  Astrakhan. 

Red  Astrachan,  one  of  the  best  known  and  most  widely 
disseminated  varieties,  originated  in  Sweden  and  was 
known  in  England  as  early  as  1816.  It  was  introduced 
in  this  country  in  1835  by  the  Massachusetts  Horticul- 
tural Society.  The  variety  is  well  known  commercially 
in  Monmouth  County,  New  Jersey,  in  Delaware  and  to  a 
limited  extent  throughout  the  northerri  tier  of  states  as  far 
west  as  the  Missouri  River.  It  is  a  beautiful  early  sum- 
mer apple,  of  medium  size,  yellow,  largely  covered  with 
light  and  dark  red  stripes,  very  often  a  bluish  bloom.  It 
is  highly  prized  for  culinary  and  dessert  purposes. 

The  tree  is  medium  in  size,  a  strong  grower,  moderately 
long  lived,  an  early  bearer,  and  a  reliable  cropper.  It  is 
necessary  to  make  several  pickings  as  the  fruit  ripens  very 
unevenly  and  there  is  likely  to  be  considerable  loss  from 
dropping.  The  Red  Astrachan  is  not  very  uniform  in  size 
and  is  a  poor  shipper.  It  is  well  suited  for  local  trade 
demand,  but  not  at  all  for  distant  shipping.  Red  Astra- 
chan is  so  common  throughout  the  home  orchards  that  local 
markets  are  generally  well  supplied.  Commercial  plant- 
ings are  not  generally  recommended. 

Early  Ripe. 

This  is  a  well  known  early  commercial  variety  particu- 
larly adapted  to  New  Jersey,  Delaware  and  Pennsylvania, 
where  it  has  attained  considerable  commercial  importance. 
It  is  one  of  the  leading  commercial  apples  of  New  Jersey. 
The  tree  is  large,  vigorous,  and  a  fairly  good  cropper, 


436  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

although  it  has  a  tendency  to  biennial  bearing.  Fruit  is 
medium,  fairly  uniform  in  size,  rather  inclined  to  be  con- 
ical, irregular  and  broadly  ribbed,  with  short  thick  stems. 
Its  season  is  July  and  August.  Early  Eipe  trees  come  into 
bearing  young  and  are  well  adapted  as  fillers  or  for  perm- 
anent planting  in  certain  regions.  Some  large  orchards  of 
this  variety  are  in  southern  New  Jersey  and  in  the  inten- 
sive apple  sections  of  Delaware.  It  is  recommended  for 
planting  in  these  districts. 

Alexander. 

This  apple  is  of  the  Aport  group  introduced  from  Russia 
to  England  in  1817,  later  to  this  country  where  it  is  only 
grown  in  limited  commercial  quantities.  The  tree  is  usu- 
ally exceptionally  hardy,  vigorous  and  moderately  produc- 
tive. It  is  subject  to  blight  in  some  localities.  Its  season 
in  the  North  begins  in  September  and  extends  through  Oc- 
tober. It  is  often  in  strong  demand  in  the  market  and 
has  proved  a  highly  profitable  variety  for  those  who  have 
grown  it  in  a  commercial  way.  One  of  the  best  commer- 
cial orchards  of  this  variety  is-  at  Hilton,  New  York.  It 
is  particularly  adapted  to  northern  climates  and  is  widely 
grown  in  Canada. 

The  fruit  is  large  and  uniform  in  size,  attractive,  red 
striped,  medium  in  quality  and  suitable  more  for  culinary 
purposes  than  for  dessert.  It  brings  high  prices  but  since 
the  demand  is  limited  it  is  not  recommended  for  commer- 
cial planting  except  in  a  small  way,  or  as  a  filler. 

Starr. 

The  Starr  is  an  early  variety  of  commercial  importance 
only  in  sections  of  New  Jersey,  Delaware  and  Maryland. 


Varieties  of  Apples  437 

Rather  extensive  plantings  are  in  the  district  about  Bur- 
lington County,  New  Jersey.  The  original  tree  was  found 
on  the  grounds  of  Judge  J.  M.  White  at  Woodbury,  New 
Jersey,  and  was  first  propagated  by  William  Perry  in  1865 
under  the  name  of  Starr. 

The  tree  is  moderately  vigorous,  comes  into  bearing 
young  and  has  a  reputation  of  being  a  good  annual  bearer. 
The  fruit  is-  large,  very  attractive  for  a  green  or  yellowish 
apple,  very  good  in  quality  and  especially  for  dessert  use. 
It  is  highly  prized  for  the  early  market  and  is  one  of  the 
leading  commercial  varieties  of  southern  New  Jersey.  Its 
season  is  July  to  September.  At  the  present  time,  most 
of  the  fruit  of  the  Starr  is  shipped  in  hampers  or  in  five- 
eighths-bushel  baskets.  The  Starr  is  recommended  for 
commercial  planting  in  New  Jersey,  but  not  in  New  York 
or  more  northern  districts-. 

Red  June  ( Carolina  Red  June.,  Carolina,  June,  Carolina 


Red  June  is  a  southern  apple,  supposed  to  have  origin- 
ated in  North  Carolina.  It  has  long  been  known  commer- 
cially and  is  grown  in  many  sections,  particularly  in  south- 
ern Illinois  and  in  various  early  apple  districts  of  the 
southern  states,  as  well  as  to  a  limited  degree  in  New 
Jersey  and  Delaware.  Red  June  tops  the  early  market  in 
price  in  many  sections  and  is  particularly  important  in 
southern  Illinois  production.  The  fruit  has  a  very  at- 
tractive deep  red  color,  is  inclined  to  be  oblong,  with  un- 
equal sides,  but  is  fairly  uniform  in  size  and  shape. 

The  tree  bears  well,  is  remarkably  vigorous  and  has  an 
upright  habit  of  growth,  with  short,  straight,  slender 
twigs.  The  fruit  ripens  very  unevenly  so  that  several 


438  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

pickings  are  necessary.  This  variety  is  well  suited  for 
early  fancy  trade  demand,  and  although  it  requires  consid- 
erable care  will  prove  profitable  when  grown  in  proximity 
to  early  markets. 

Chenango  (Chenango  Strawberry}. 

The  Chenango,  commonly  called  Chenango  Strawberry 
or  Strawberry,  was  first  brought  to  attention  in  Chenango 
County,  New  York.  This  variety  has  long  been  a  favorite 
in  home  orchards  and  special  markets.  In  dessert  and  cul- 
inary qualities  it  is  unsurpassed.  It  has  a  very  character- 
istic aroma  and  flavor  which  it  still  retains  when  cooked. 

Under  favorable  conditions  the  tree  is  a  heavy  bearer, 
usually  biennial.  The  fruit  begins  to  ripen  in  southern 
Illinois,  where  it  is  grown  in  considerable  commercial 
quantities  for  shipment,  about  the  last  of  July  and  the  rip- 
ening period  continues  for  several  weeks.  It  should  thus 
have  several  pickings.  In  New  York  and  New  England, 
where  it  is  a  favorite  home  orchard  variety,  it  does  not  be- 
gin to  ripen  before  September. 

The  tree  is  hardy,  long  lived  and  an  early  bearer.  The 
fruit  varies  in  size  from  small  to  very  large.  It  is  yellow- 
ish white,  striped  with  red,  and  usually  elongated,  oblong 
conic  in  form,  although  it  is  particularly  subject  to  varia- 
tion in  quality  and  form,  trees  in  the  same  orchard  often 
producing  widely  different  types.  It  is  one  of  the  most  at- 
tractive apples,  is  unsurpassed  as  a  home  orchard  variety 
and  has  proved  very  profitable  when  grown  in  limited  quan- 
tities for  special  local  markets.  It  is  usually  marketed  in 
hampers  or  baskets.  The  fruit  ripens  too  unevenly  and  is 
too  variable  in  size  for  a  standard  variety.  It  is  also  a 
very  poor  shipper. 


Varieties  of  Apples  439 

Fall  Pippin. 

The  origin  of  the  Fall  Pippin  is  unknown,  but  it  is  cer- 
tain that  the  variety  has  been  cultivated  for  many  genera- 
tions since  there  are  trees  in  New  York  orchards  which  are 
now  over  one  hundred  years  old.  Although  a  good  variety 
for  the  home  orchard,  the  Fall  Pippin  is  not  widely  grown 
or  recommended  outside  of  the  Hudson  Valley  and  certain 
limited  areas. 

The  fruit  is  very  large,  tends  to  ripen  unevenly,  but 
when  fully  ripened  has  an  attractive  yellow  color  and  a 
peculiar  flavor.  The  flesh  is  tender,  rich,  and  of  fine 
quality,  being  excellent  both  for  dessert  and  culinary  pur- 
poses. The  apple  is  desired  by  the  export  and  by  fancy 
trade,  particularly  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York.  Its  sea- 
son is  from  September  to  January.  The  tree  is  large, 
vigorous,  hardy,  and  very  long  lived,  but  the  fruit  and  foli- 
age are  especially  subject  to  attacks  of  apple-scab  fungus 
and  thorough  preventive  measures  are  necessary  in  order 
to  grow  the  Fall  Pippin  successfully.  While  not  recom- 
mended for  general  planting,  this  variety  would  doubtless 
prove  profitable  in  the  more  northern  regions  where  there 
is  a  local  or  fancy  trade  demand. 

All  the  foregoing  varieties  are  grown  commercially  to 
a  greater  or  less  extent.  There  are  other  sorts  such  as 
Early  Harvest,  Smith's  Cider,  Smokehouse,  Fallawater, 
Swarr,  Sweet  Bough,  Westfield,  and  a  great  many  others 
which  are  well  known  to  the  home  orchardist,  and  widely 
listed  in  nursery  catalogues,  but  which  are  not  important 
commercially  in  anv  part  of  the  country,  and  for  this 
reason  are  not  described  in  this  discussion.  It  might  be 
well  to  mention  that  such  varieties  as  Lowry,  Virginia 


440  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

Beauty,  King  David,  Opalescent  and  certain  others  are  be- 
ing planted  with  considerable  success  in  certain  localities. 
Lowry  and  Virginia  Beauty  are  in  favor  in  parts  of  Vir- 
ginia and  North  Carolina,  while  Opalescent  is  found  in 
Ohio.  King  David  is  quite  widely  disseminated  and  is 
being  planted  considerably.  English  Codling,  Cham- 
plain,  Pennock  or  Pelican  are  found  in  a  commercial 
way  in  Monmouth  County,  New  Jersey.  Golden  Deli- 
cious has  not  yet  attained  commercial  prominence  but  in  a 
decade  will  no  doubt  be  one  of  the  best  prized  apples. 

The  varieties  which  have  been  given  detailed  description 
will  represent  practically  the  entire  commercial  crop  of  the 
United  States.  The  first  twelve  described  represent  nearly 
80  per  cent  of  the  entire  commercial  production  of  this 
country.  This  serves  to  emphasize  the  importance  of  rec- 
ognizing and  planting  only  such  varieties  as  are  of  some 
commercial  importance  or  promise.  Hundreds  of  other 
kinds  might  be  named  which  appear  in  nursery  catalogues, 
but  the  greater  portion  of  these  are  valueless  either  as 
home  orchard  varieties  or  for  commercial  planting. 

There  are  many  new  and  much  advertised  varieties 
which  are  not  discussed  for  as  yet  they  are  of  little  or  no 
commercial  importance  and  several  years'  trial  will  be  nec- 
essary to  determine  their  true  value.  However,  there  is 
plenty  of  opportunity  for  new  varieties  if  they  are  really 
superior  to  the  standard  sorts  of  to-day  and  experiment 
stations  are  doing  valuable  work  in  developing  apples  of 
superior  quality.  Before  planting  any  new  variety  on  a 
large  commercial  scale,  it  should  be  very  highly  recom- 
mended by  at  least  two  or  three  experiment  stations  which 
have  given  it  a  thorough  trial.  Golden  Delicious  is  one 


Varieties  of  Apples  441 

of  these  very  new  varieties  which  certainly  is  worthy  of 
a  thorough  trial  commercially. 

STATUS    OF    COMMERCIAL   VARIETIES 

It  is  of  importance  to  discuss  the  relative  status  of  the 
various  commercial  varieties  and  the  reasons  for  their  in- 
crease or  decline. 

Commercial  varieties  the  production  of  which,  is  on  the 
increase,  and  the  outstanding  reasons  for  this : 

Variety.  Reasons   for  increase  in   com- 

mercial orchards. 

1.  Jonathan    Early  bearer,  high  in  color,  fine 

in  flavor,  good  shipper. 

2.  Stayman Good  size,  fine  keeping  quality, 

very  productive,  agreeable 
flavor. 

3.  Delicious Quality  par-excellence,  attract- 

ive appearance,  fancy  trade 
demand. 

4.  Winesap   Productive,     hardy,      excellent 

quality,  regular  bearer. 

5.  Rome Good   size,    uniform,   attractive 

appearance,  productive,  excel- 
lent cooking  and  baking  qual- 
ities. 

6.  Williams  Early  Red Fancy  trade  demand  both  local 

and  export,  attractive  appear- 
ance, good  quality,  good  ship- 
per. 

7.  York  Imperial Very  productive,  excellent  cul- 

inary and  shipping  qualities. 

8.  Oldenburg  (Duchess)    Fine    culinary    qualities,   hardy 

tree,  fruit  uniform  in  size  and 
shape,  early  bearer,  produc- 
tive. 


442  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

y     .  ,  Reasons    for   increase    in    com- 

mercial orchards. 

9.  Grimes Excellent  quality  —  both  dessert 

and  culinary,  fancy  trade  de- 
mand. 

10.  Mclntosh Attractive  appearance,  excellent 

dessert  qualities,  fancy  trade 
demand,  very  hardy. 

11.  Wealthy   Uniform    in    size    and    shape, 

hardy,  productive,  early  and 
reliable  cropper,  excellent 
market  quality. 

12.  Yellow  Transparent Very  early,  productive,  excellent 

culinary  qualities,  attractive 
appearance. 

13.  Arkansas  (Black  Twig)  . .  .Large  size,  attractive,  excellent 

for  baking,  fairly  productive. 

14.  Arkansas  Black Large  and  most  attractive  ap- 

pearance. Extremely  good 
keeper  and  shipper. 

15.  Winter  Banana   Early   bearer,   fine   appearance, 

high  quality,  fancy  trade  de- 
mand. 

16.  Golden  Delicious A  new  variety  being  recently 

planted,  productive,  high  qual- 
ity combining  many  qualities 
of  Grimes  and  Delicious. 

The  above  varieties  owe  their  popularity  to  widely  dif- 
ferent reasons.  Delicious,  Mclntosh,  Grimes  and  Winter 
Banana  are  in  demand  by  the  fancy  trade  on  account  of 
their  excellent  dessert  quality.  With  the  exception  of 
Grimes,  they  are  as  yet  used  little  for  culinary  purposes. 
Arkansas  Black,  although  of  rather  inferior  quality,  is 
utilized  by  the  fancy  trade  late  in  the  season.  The  other 
varieties  are  more  in  demand  by  the  general  trade.  The 
disadvantage  which  some  of  the  apples  have  in  quality 


Varieties  of  Apples  443 

of  the  fruit  is  overcome  by  hardiness  of  tree,  and  by  ship- 
ping and  keeping  qualities.  Certain  varieties  are  decreas- 
ing in  some  sections  and  increasing  in  others.  Arkansas 
(Black  Twig)  is  out  of  favor  with  so  many  growers  that  its 
continued  popularity  is  questionable.  York  is  increasing 
in  popularity  only  in  the  Shenandoah  and  Cumberland 
Valley  districts  of  the  Virginias,  Maryland  and  Pennsyl- 
vania. Stayman  is  almost  universally  on  the  increase. 

The  production  of  the  following  varieties  is  practically 
stationary,  the  new  plantings  about  taking  the  place  of 
those  which  are  going  out :  Baldwin,  Rhode  Island  Green- 
ing, Yellow  Newtown,  Gravenstein,  White  Winter  Pear- 
main,  Northwest  Greening,  Twenty  Ounce,  Gano,  Wag- 
ener,  Maiden  Blush,  Alexander,  Benoni,  Bonum. 

Of  these,  the  Baldwin,  Rhode  Island  Greening  and  Yel- 
low Newtown  are  very  important  commercial  varieties  and 
will  remain  so.  The  reason  why  they  are  not  on  the  in- 
crease is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  new  plantings,  although 
very  large,  are  not  sufficient  to  overcome  the  decline  in 
production  of  the  thousands  of  old  orchards  throughout  the 
East.  Yellow  Newtown  is  increasing  in  the  Northwest. 
Other  varieties  are  decreasing  in  some  sections  and  increas- 
ing in  others.  Gravenstein  is  growing  in  a  strictly  com- 
mercial way  in  New  Jersey,  California  and  parts  of  New 
England.  Wagener,  although  in  much  favor  in  the 
Spokane  district  of  Washington,  parts  of  Michigan  and 
other  limited  sections,  is  losing  popularity  in  western 
Colorado,  Wenatchee  and  Yakima  valleys,  and  is  now 
planted  only  to  a  very  limited  extent  in  the  East. 

Gano  is  planted  much  less  than  formerly  and  is  classed 
by  most  persons  with  the  Ben  Davis,  although  Black  Ben 
is  being  grown  quite  extensively.*  Due  to  many  young 


444  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

plantings,  Gano  and  Black  Ben  are  increasing  in  produc- 
tion in  the  Northwest  arid  boxed  apple  states. 

The  White  Pearmain  and  Northwest  Greening  are  im- 
portant varieties  in  particular  localities.  They  tend  to 
hold  their  own. 

Maiden  Blush  is  widely  disseminated  and  brings  good 
prices  in  the  commercial  market,  It  is  not  on  the  increase, 
due  to  the  limited  demand  for  its  class  of  fruit  and  the 
great  number  of  old  trees  of  this  variety  which  are  going 
out. 

Alexander  and  Benoni  are  grown  only  in  a  limited  way 
commercially,  and  are  striving  to  hold  their  own  against 
the  Duchess  and  Yellow  Transparent. 

Twenty  Ounce  is  in  favor  in  certain  sections  of  New 
York,  New  Jersey  and  Delaware,  but  its  susceptibility  to 
canker  has  checked  planting. 

Bonum,  important  in  certain  southern  markets,  and  of 
superior  quality,  is  at  present  largely  dependent  on  Rap- 
pahannock  and  Patrick  counties,  Virginia,  and  western 
North  Carolina  for  its  continued  commercial  importance. 

The  following  varieties  are  declining  in  commercial  im- 
portance and  in  another  generation  many  of  them  will  have 
disappeared  from  the  commercial  orchards.  Many  of 
these  varieties  are  among  the  most  important  in  the 
country,  but  they  evidently  are  not  as  generally  profitable 
as  others  which,  for  various  reasons,  excel  them  in  a  com- 
bination of  qualities. 

Variety.  Reasons    for    decline    in    com- 

mercial orchards. 

1.  Ben.  Davis  Low     quality,     susceptible     to 

blister-canker. 


Varieties  of  Apples  445 

Variety  Reasons    for    decline    in    com- 

mercial orchards. 

2.  Northern  Spy Slow  to  come  into  bearing ;  high 

cost  of  production. 

3.  Esopus   (Spitzenburg)    ....Very  suspectible  to  disease,  es- 

pecially fire-blight,  light 
bearer. 

4.  Tompkins  King Tree  short-lived,  fruit  inclined 

to  water-core,  high  cost  of 
production. 

5.  Koxbury  and  Golden   Former  popularity  due  to  long 

Kusset  keeping    quality    in    common 

storage;  place  now  taken  by 
apples  of  superior  market 
quality;  difficult  to  harvest. 

6.  Hubbardston Loses  flavor  in  storage,  tends  to 

bear  much  undersized  and 
poor  colored  fruit. 

7.  Missouri   Pippin    Short  lived  tree,  fruit  of  third 

rate  quality  and  small  in  size. 

8.  Tolman  Sweet Decline  due  to  fact  it  is  a  sweet 

apple;  deserves  more  atten- 
tion. 

9.  Fameuse Susceptibility     to      apple-scab, 

place  in  market  being  taken 
by  Mclntosh. 

10.  Yellow  Bellflower Eequires  great  care  in  handling, 

not  regarded  as  a  satisfactory 
cropper  on  most  soils  in  the 
East. 

11.  Stark    Does  not  color  well,  poor  quality. 

12.  Smokehouse     Difficult  to  develop  fruit  of  good 

color  and  quality.  Other  var- 
ieties much  better  suited  to 
culinary  uses. 

13.  Smith  Cider   Does  not  rank  high  in  market 

quality,  and  does  not  develop 
in  size  in  many  regions. 


446  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

Reasons    for    decline    in    com- 
mercwl  orchards. 

14.  Willow  Twig Poor      quality.     Has     declined 

since  advent  of  cold  storage. 

15.  Ked  Limbertwig Only  fair  quality,  market  price 

below  the  average,  place  taken 
by  superior  cold  storage  varie- 
ties. 

16.  Westfield   (Seek-no-further)  Fruit  variable  in  color,  usually 

lower  in  price  than  other 
commercial  varieties,  lacks 
culinary  qualities. 

17.  Black  Gilliflower Does  not  hold  flavor,  difficult  to 

harvest,  limited  demand. 

18.  Rails  (Genet  or  Geniton).  .Requires  much  thinning,  rather 

small  in  size,  poor  appearance. 

19.  Fall  Pippin  . . ., Very  susceptible  to  apple-scab, 

ripens  unevenly,  lacks  storage 
qualities 

20.  Rambo Leading    commercial    varieties 

are  superior  in  quality  and 
uses,  does  not  keep  well  in 
storage. 

21.  Huntsman    Susceptibility  to  bitter-rot,  sun- 

scald  and  scab;  tree  slow  to 
come  into  full  bearing. 

22.  Ingram , Second  rate  in  quality,  medium 

size. 

23.  Wolf  River Fruit   too   large,   lacks   storage 

qualities,  moderate  cropper, 
poor  dessert  quality. 

24.  Collins    Lacking  in  dessert  quality,  flesh 

coarse  and  lacking  in  flavor. 

25.  Lawver  (Delaware  Red) . . .  Lacking  in  dessert  quality,  not 

a  very  reliable  cropper,  place 
taken  by  cold  storage  varieties 
of  superior  quality. 

26.  Blue  Pearmain Not   a   reliable   cropper,   rather 


Varieties  of  Apples  447 

Variety  Reasons    for    decline    in    com- 

mercial orchards. 
low  in  quality,  poor  storage 
variety. 

27.  Buckingham Poor  shipper,  moderate  quality 

and  irregular  bearer. 

28.  Fallawater  Coarse  flesh,  superseded  by  other 

late  keeping  varieties  of  better 
quality. 

29.  Swaar  Tree  lacks  longevity,  moderate 

cropper,  lacking  in  attractive 
appearance. 

30.  Eed  Canada  (Steele's  Ked)  Delicate  tree,  light  and  uncer- 

tain cropper. 

Of  the  above  varieties,  Ben  Davis,  Northern  Spy, 
Esopus  and  Yellow  Bellflower  are  of  great  importance  in 
the  commercial  market.  Ben  Davis,  formerly  planted  to 
the  exclusion  of  most  other  apples  in  Missouri  and  many 
parts  of  the  Middle  West  and  South,  is  showing  a  rapid 
decline.  Not  only  are  comparatively  few  Ben  Davis  now 
being  planted,  but  thousands  of  the  old  orchards  are  dying 
out  through  the  ravages  of  the  blister-canker  and  general 
neglect.  Virginia  is  taking  the  best  care  of  its  Ben  Davis 
orchards. 

While  it  is  true  that  the  Ben  Davis  is  of  low  quality,  its 
cost  of  production  is  very  low  as  compared  to  most  apples. 
Due  to  its  heavy  bearing  qualities,  it  has  proved  very 
profitable  in  many  regions.  Growers  to-day  would  make 
no  great  mistake  in  planting  Ben  Davis  in  those  regions 
outside  of  the  irrigated  sections  where  it  is  well  adapted. 
It  is  very  suitable  for  culinary  purposes  and  its  low  dessert 
quality  should  not  overbalance  its  recognized  keeping  qual- 
ities and  productivity. 


448  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

Northern  Spy,  although  one  of  the  highest  priced  and 
highest  quality  apples  grown,  is  being  superseded  by 
varieties  which  are  earlier  and  heavier  bearers,  and  whose 
cost  of  production  is  much  less.  It  will  retain  its  place  in 
many  localities,  however,  and  will  no  doubt  always  be 
grown  in  commercial  quantities,  particularly  in  northern 
New  York,  Michigan,  Vermont  and  Canada.  It  has  no 
place  in  the  Northwest,  Central  West  or  South. 

The  Esopus  Spitzenburg  is  declining  rapidly  in  the 
East,  and  few  commercial  orchards  now  exist  outside  of 
Oregon,  Washington  and  California.  It  is  grown  in  large 
quantities,  especially  in  Hood  Kiver  and  Wenatchee  val- 
leys. On  account  of  the  susceptibility  of  the  trees  to 
disease,  however,  it  is  being  planted  to  a  much  less  degree 
than  formerly,  even  in  its  most  favored  regions.  The 
veryr  high  dessert  and  market  quality  of  the  fruit,  which 
is  practically  unsurpassed  in  this  respect,  has  kept  this 
apple  in  the  commercial  orchards. 

Tompkins  King,  excellent  both  for  dessert  and  culinary 
uses,  is  hardly  suitable  for  commercial  orchards,  for  the 
same  reasons  as  the  Esopus.  It  brings  high  prices  but  re- 
quires great  care  in  growing  and  is  particularly  subject  to 
damage  by  windstorms.  Its  planting  is  now  being  largely 
limited  to  home  orchards. 

Roxbury  Russet,  Golden  Russet,  Willow  Twig,  Smoke- 
house, Missouri  Pippin,  Fallawater,  and  Lawver  owed 
much  of  their  former  popularity  to  their  ability  to  keep 
well  in  cellars  or  common  storage.  With  the  advent  of 
the  cold  storage,  these  varieties  lost  much  of  their  im- 
portance and  are  now  seldom  planted  in  commercial 
orchards. 

Yellow  Bellflower,  although  important  in  the  aggregate 


Varieties  of  Apples  449 

number  of  trees  in  the  United  States,  is  grown  in  a  com- 
mercial way  only  in  the  Pajaro  Valley  of  California.  It 
bids  fair  to  retain  or  increase  its  importance  there,  but 
the  trees  in  the  East  are  nearly  all  in  old  orchards,  and 
are  rapidly  going  out. 

Smith  Cider  has  always  been  largely  limited  to  home 
orchards,  particularly  in  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey  and 
mid-eastern  states.  Although  this  is  an  old  and  once 
valuable  variety,  it  is  now  seldom  planted. 

Eed  Limbertwig,  the  leading  commercial  apple  of 
North  Carolina,  is  being  superseded  by  Arkansas  (Black 
Twig) ,  Stayman  and  other  recognized  commercial  varieties' 
which  surpass  it  in  quality  and  market  demand. 

Fall  Pippin  and  Fameuse  are  autumn  or  early  winter 
apples  which  are  losing  their  place  in  the  commercial  or- 
chards, due  principally  to  the  development  of  other  varie- 
ties of  equal  or  better  quality.  They  will  always  be  grown 
to  some  extent  commercially,  particularly  the  Fameuse. 

AGE    VARIETIES    BEGIN    TO    BEAE 

The  age  at  which  trees  attain  bearing  varies  greatly 
with  the  variety  and  also  somewhat  with  the  region.  In 
the  Northwest,  and  particularly  in  the  Wenatchee  and 
Yakima  valleys,  some  varieties  are  in  profitable  bearing  at 
six  years  and  are  bearing  full  crops  at  ten  years  of  age. 
In  the  East,  however,  the  time  required  for  trees  to  attain 
full  bearing  is  from  three  to  eight  years  longer.  Trees  in 
Virginia  come  into  bearing  earlier  than  those  in  Michigan 
or  in  New  York,  while  bearing  age  for  the  Central  West 
might  be  given  as  midway  between  that  for  New  York 
and  Virginia.  New  England  is  a  region  in  which  trees 
attain  full  bearing  at  rather  advanced  ages. 


450 


The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 


The  following  classification  arranges  most  of  the  im- 
portant commercial  varieties  into  three  groups  according 
to  the  time  at  which  they  reach  bearing.  In  the  first  col- 
umn are  those  which  are  known  as  early  bearers  in  practi- 
cally every  region  in  which  they  are  grown.  In  the  last 
column  are  those  which  are  generally  classed  as  late  bear- 
ers, while  in  the  middle  column  are  varieties  which  grade 
between  early  and  late  bearers.  Some  variation  will  be 
found,  of  course,  in  different  regions. 


Early. 

Medium. 

Late. 

Wealthy 

Winesap 

Delicious 

Wagener 

Ben  Davis 

Arkansas  Black 

Duchess 

Gano 

Tompkins  King 

Jonathan 

Maiden  Blush 

Arkansas 

Missouri  Pippin 

Alexander 

Yellow   Newtown 

Twenty  Ounce 

R.  I.  Greening 

Yellow  Bellflower 

Yellow  Transparent 

Williams  Early  Red 

Esopus 

Mclntosh 

Grimes 

Northern  Spy 

Rome 

Stayman 

Stark 

Baldwin 

York  Imperial 

Of  the  varieties  listed,  Northern  Spy  is  probably  slower 
to  come  into  bearing  than  any  other,  while  Oldenburg 
(Duchess),  Yellow  Transparent  and  Wealthy,  are  among 
extremely  early  bearers.  The  latter  three  varieties  begin 
to  bear  at  about  five  years  of  age,  even  in  New  York  state, 
while  the  Northern  Spy  can  not  be  expected  to  have  a 
good  commercial  crop  before  it  is  at  least  fifteen  years  of 
age,  and  is  not  in  full  bearing  until  it  is  twenty-five.  The 
following  examples  will  show  the  wide  variation  in  full 
bearing  age  for  different  regions :  in  the  Wenatchee  Valley 
an  orchard  is  considered  in  full  bearing  at  ten  to  twelve 
years ;  in  New  York  not  generally  before  twenty  to  twenty- 
five  years ;  in  Virginia  it  requires  about  fifteen  years,  with 


Varieties  of  Apples  451 

the  exception  of  the  Yellow  Newtown  plantings,  which  re- 
quire a  somewhat  longer  time. 

Most  of  the  late  bearing  varieties  are  of  high  quality 
and  all  are  in  demand  on  the  general  market.  However, 
it  is  on  account  of  their  very  late  bearing  tendencies  that 
many  of  them  are  not  planted  to  a  greater  extent.  It 
should  be  remembered  that  late  bearing  does  not  mean  un- 
productive. Varieties  which  are  late  in  coming  into 
bearing  are  often  more  productive  than  the  early  bearing 
sorts. 

RELATIVE    PRODUCTIVITY    OF    VARIETIES    IN    FULL    BEARING 

It  is  difficult  to  arrange  varieties  in  columns  according 
to  productivity,  because  many  are  very  productive  on 
some  soils  and  unproductive  on  others,  and  also  productive 
in  certain  regions,  while  not  at  all  adapted  to  others.  In 
general,  however,  twenty  of  the  well  known  commercial 
varieties  might  be  arranged  as  follows  somewhat  in  order 
of  productivity: 

Heavy  to  Medium  Bearing         Medium  to  Light  Bearing 
Varieties.  Varieties. 

1.  Ben  Davis  1.  Yellow  Newtown 

2.  Stayman  2.  Winter  Banana 

3.  Baldwin  3.  Mclntosh 

4.  Stark  4.  Arkansas 

5.  York  Imperial  5.  Arkansas  Black 

6.  Winesap  6.  Grimes 

7.  Rhode  Island  Greening  7.  Delicious 

8.  Home  Beauty  8.  Wagener 

9.  Wealthy  9.  Esopus 
10.  Northern  Spy  10.  Red  June 

Ben  Davis,  although  undoubtedly  the  heaviest  bearing 


452  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

of  all  commercial  varieties,  is  at  the  same  time  usually  the 
lowest  in  price  on  the  commercial  market,  while  Red 
June,  probably  producing  about  the  lighest  crop  of  any 
commercial  apple,  usually  tops  the  market  in  its  season. 
Quality  is  to  be  considered  as  well  as  the  bearing  tenden- 
cies when  selecting  varieties. 

EELATIVE    HARDINESS    OF    COMMERCIAL    VARIETIES 

Hardiness  and  health  of  tree  plays  an  important  part  in 
selecting  varieties  and  should  be  considered  especially  in 
severe  climates.  The  following  are  well  known  as  hardy 
sorts: 

Northern  Spy  Wealthy 

Ben  Davis  Baldwin 

Fameuse  Yellow  Bellflower 

Yellow  Newtown  Gravenstein 

Tolman  Sweet  Williams     Early     Ked 

Mclntosh  Alexander 

Winter  Banana  Delicious 

The  following  varieties  lack  hardiness: 

Tompkins      King  Grimes 

Twenty   Ounce  Sutton 

Esopus  Canada  Red 
Hubbardston 

One  might  mention  a  great  many  other  varieties  which 
would  fall  midway  between  these  two  groups,  or  might  add 
several  to  each  group,  but  the  more  important  in  each 
extreme  are  named  above.  Of  the  hardy  varieties,  Mcln- 
tosh deserves  particular  mention.  It  withstood  the  severe 
winter  in  1917  in  the  Champlain  district  of  New  York  and 


Varieties  of  Apples  453 

Quebec,  when  trees  of  such  well  known  and  hardy  varieties 
as  Northern  Spy,  Fameuse  and  Ben  Davis  were  killed  in 
the  same  orchards. 

VARIETIES    IN    GREATEST    DEMAND 

In  the  selection  of  varieties,  it  is  important  to  consider 
those  which  are  in  great  demand  in  the  commercial  mar- 
ket, and  which  ordinarily  bring  the  best  market  prices. 
This  sort  of  selection  will  often  eliminate  many  hardy  or 
productive  varieties  which  are  not  generally  in  great  de- 
mand by  the  consuming  public.  The  following  are  well 
known  and  sought  after  in  the  general  markets : 

Late  Varieties.  Early  or  Fall  Varieties. 

Baldwin  Yellow  Transparent 

Tompkins  King  Ked  June 

Esopus  Oldenburg  (Duchess) 

Rhode  Island  Greening  Gravenstein 

Stayman  Williams     Early     Red 

Delicious  Bonum 

Winesap  Wealthy 

Jonathan  Twenty  Ounce 

York  Imperial  Mclntosh 

Northern  Spy 
Grimes 

Yellow  Newtown 
Rome  Beauty 
Ortley 
Winter  Banana 

Of  the  above  named  late  varieties,  Esopus,  Tompkins 
King,  Grimes,  Northern  Spy,  Delicious,  Mclntosh  and 
Ortley  usually  outsell  all  others,  while  Winesap  and  Jona- 
than excel  the  Stayman,  Baldwin,  York  and  most  other* 
varieties  in  barreled  apple  sections.  In  the  early  market 


454  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

Yellow  Transparent,  Oldenburg  (Duchess)  and  Wealthy 
are  probably  the  three  best  known  varieties,  although  they 
do  not  usually  sell  for  such  high  prices  as  some  of  the  spe- 
cial sorts  like  Red  June. 

EXPOKT    VARIETIES 

Varieties  might  be  divided  further  into  three  classes  as 
follows:  (1)  those  for  special  or  local  markets,  (2)  those 
for  general  market,  and  (3)  those  for  export  market. 
Extensive  planting  of  varieties  which  are  only  adapted 
for  special  markets  is  not  recommended.  It  is  better  to 
plant  general  market  varieties  which  are  adapted  to  special 
markets  as  well.  In  considering  the  export  market,  it  is 
necessary  to  eliminate  some  general  market  varieties.  The 
following  ten  or  twelve  varieties  have  proved  most  satis- 
factory for  the  export  trade : 

Barreled  Boxed 

Baldwin  Yellow  Newtown 

Yellow  Newtown  Winesap 

York  Imperial  Jonathan 

Ben  Davis  Esopus 

Northern  Spy  White  Pearmain 
Ortley 

Yellow  Newtown,  York  Imperial  and  Baldwin  have  up 
to  the  present  time  been  the  favorite  export  varieties. 

VARIETIES   FOB    THE    HOME    ORCHARDS 

In  selecting  varieties  for  the  home  orchard,  an  entirely 
different  system  should  be  used  than  for  commercial  plant- 
ing. Flavor  and  keeping  quality  are  the  two  predomin- 
ant qualities  to  be  considered.  Annual  yield,  shipping 


Varieties  of  Apples  455 

qualities,  appearance  and  market  demand  should  not  ma- 
terially affect  the  selection  of  varieties  for  a  strictly  home 
orchard.  Very  often  apples  which  conform  to  commer- 
cial standards  are  inferior  in  quality  to  certain  sorts  which 
may  be  grown  at  home.  Suitable  varieties  for  the  home 
orchard  are  very  often  too  tender  to  ship  or  are  too  irregu- 
lar in  their  bearing  habits  to  prove  profitable  in  a  com- 
mercial way. 

Varieties  most  valuable  for  home  use  are  seldom  listed 
by  many  nurserymen,  while  commercial  varieties  not  at  all 
adaptable  for  the  home  orchard  are  often  given  as  suitable. 
Nursery  catalogue  descriptions  of  varieties  are  not  only 
meagre,  but  are  too  general  in  many  ways  and  at  times 
are  misleading.  Such  descriptions  as  "  fine  quality," 
"  very  productive  "  and  "  excellent  for  the  orchard  "  have 
been  applied  to  practically  every  apple  offered  by  nursery- 
men. This  criticism,  of  course,  does  not  apply  to  all 
catalogues,  but  one  has  only  to  read  over  the  list  of  varieties 
offered  by  several  nurseries  selected  at  random  to  see  how 
widely  descriptions  differ  and  to  note  the  number  of  odd 
and  practically  untried  varieties  listed.  A  great  number 
of  new  and  odd  varieties  offered  by  nurserymen  are  much 
inferior  in  quality  to  standard  sorts. 

To  name  the  varieties  suitable  for  home  orchard  pur- 
poses would  entail  a  very  large  list,  if  seasonable  demands 
and  also  varying  soil  and  climatic  conditions  were  con- 
sidered. Among  the  commercial  varieties  suited  to  home 
orchard  use  generally  throughout  the  Xorth  and  central 
states  are  Northern  Spy,  Mclntosh,  Fameuse,  Baldwin, 
Grimes,  Gravenstein,  Tompkins  King,  Esopus  (Spitzen- 
burg),  Delicious,  Stayman,  Yellow  Newtown,  Oldenburg 
(Duchess),  Winter  Banana  and  Rhode  Island  Greening. 


456  The  Commercial  Apple  Industry 

In  the  more  southern  regions,  Grimes,  Delicious,  Wine- 
sap,  Stayman  and  Yellow  Transparent  are  valuable,  while 
Bonum,  Virginia  Beauty  and  Yellow  Newtown  are  of  par- 
ticularly high  quality  when  grown  in  the  mountain  dis- 
tricts of  the  South.  Many  others  are  suitable,  but  the 
above  are  excellent  commercial  sorts  as  well  as  for  the 
home  orchard.  Varieties  not  particularly  suited  for  the 
home  orchard  are  Ben  Davis,  Gano,  Home  Beauty,  Bis- 
mark,  Wolf  Kiver,  Blue  Pearmain,  Pewaukee,  Mammoth 
Black  Twig,  Arkansas  Black,  Willow  Twig,  Missouri  Pip- 
pin, Smith  Cider,  Smokehouse  and  many  others.  Some 
sweet  apples  find  little  place  in  commercial  orchards,  but 
have  superior  flavor  and  are  unexcelled  for  dessert  and 
boiling  purposes.  The  Victoria  Sweet,  a  very  tender, 
juicy  and  rare  flavored  apple  in  season  from  October  to 
January  in  the  North  is  one  of  these,  Jersey  Sweet,  a 
month  earlier,  being  another.  Sweet  Bough  is  the  best 
summer  sweet  apple,  excelling  all  others  in  dessert 
quality. 

Pound  Sweet  is  a  late  fall  and  winter  variety  which  is 
valuable,  even  commercially,  and  the  same  is  true  of  Tol- 
man  Sweet.  The  last  named  is  one  of  the  best  apples 
grown  for  household  use. 

Old  varieties  like  Black  Gilliflower,  Roxbury  and 
Golden  Russet,  Westfield  Seek-no-further,  Yellow  Bell- 
flower  and  Jeffries  are  valuable  in  the  home  orchard. 
Ohenango  is  one  of  the  very  finest  apples  for  the  home 
orchard,  unexcelled  in  fine  dessert  quality.  Its  season  is 
July  in  southern  Illinois,  August  in  Ohio  and  September 
in  New  York. 

It  is  always  well  when  setting  out  a  home  orchard  to  get 
in  touch  with  the  horticultural  extension  department  of 


Varieties  of  Apples  457 

the  state  and  obtain  the  advice  as  to  varieties  for  any 
particular  locality.  Also  if  a  variety  can  not  be  secured 
from  any  particular  nursery,  the  information  as  to  where 
it  can  be  obtained  may  be  received  on  inquiry  of  the  office 
of  Pomological  Investigations,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 
Washington,  D.  C. 


INDEX 


Advertising    (effect  of),  12 
Age,    bearing,    120-122 
Albemarle  Pippin,  402 
Alexander,  436 
Alfalfa,  in  orchards,  161 
Alkali,  danger  of,  178-179 
American  Golden  Russet,  408 
Annapolis  Valley  of  Nova  Scotia, 

86 
Aphids,  life  history  and  control, 

210 

Aphis  sorbi,   212 
Archips   argyrospila,   215 
Apple-blotch,  217 

rosette,   222 

scab,  216 

tree  tent  caterpillar,  214 

worm,   206 
Arkansas 

advantages  and  disadvantages, 
108 

Black,  412 

Black  Twig,  411 

regional   description,   54-56 

Valley  region,  59 
Arsenate  of  lead,  239 
Arsenite  of  zinc,  241 
Aspidiotus  perniciosus,  210 
Astrachan,  435 
Australia,  95-99 

Bacillus  amylovorus,  221 

Baldwin,  396 
spot,  223 

Barry,  Patrick,  influence  on  in- 
dustry, 22 

Basement  storage,  312 

Bearing  trees,  pruning  of,  274- 
275 


Bees,  importance  of,  253 
Ben    Davis,    397 
Benoni,   433 

Bitter  Root  Valley,  regional  de- 
scription, 64 
Bitter-rot,  218 
Black  Ben,  407 

Gilliflower,  425 

Twig,  411 

Blister  canker,  219 
Blodgett,   236 
Blossom-blight,  222 
Boise  Valley,  75 
Bonum,  434 

Boom  development,  17-18 
Bordeaux  mixture,  247 

spray  nozzles,   232 
Box    apple    districts    production 

of,  79 

British  Columbia,  92-94 
Broker,   323 

Brush  disposal,  cost  of,  375 
Bud-moth,  215 
Bulk  shipments,  312 
By-products,   348'-356 

increase  in  use  of,   14 

Cabinet  evaporators,  352 
Calcium  arsenate,  240 
California,   76-79 

advantages  of,  113-115 

early  apples,  83-84 

early  development  of  apple  23 

Fruit  Growers'  Exchange,  317 
Canada,  85-95 
Canning,  355 

Capital,  necessary,  126-128 
Carlot  distribution,  325 

operator,  324 
459 


460 


Index 


Carolina  June,  437 
Carpocapsa  pomonella,  206 

Cash    buyers,    314 

Cedar  rust,  218 

Census    figures,    somewhat    mis- 
leading, 2 

Centralization  of  apple  industry, 
6 

Central  leader,  pruning,  261 

Ceramic  oven,  353 

Champlain,  440 

district,    advantages    and    dis- 
advantages,   102-103 
district,    regional    description, 
35 

Chapman,  Jonathan,  influence  on 
industry,   22 

Chenango,  438 

Choosing  an  orchard,  100-131 

Cider,  356 

Citrus    fruit,    competition    with, 
18 

Clarke,  W.  T.,  influence  of,  25 

Classification,  scientific,  26-27 

Clean  cultivation,  156-159 

Climatic  influences,  123-125 

Codlin-moth,  life  history  and  con- 
trol, 206-210 

Codling,  440 

Collar-rot,   220 

Collins,    422 

Color,  effect  of  fertilization,  193 

Color,    indicating   maturity,    292 

Colorado,  distribution  and  plant- 
ings, 60-61 
first  plantings,  26 
western  slope,  advantages  and 
disadvantages,    109 

Commercial  apple  crop,  definition 

of,  4 
size  of,   5-6 

Commission-man,    323 

Common  storage,  335-336 

Community  packing-house,  308 

Conatrachelus  nenuphar,  213 

Consignment,  313 

Conveyor  belts,  305-306 


Cooperative    organization,    form 
of,  319-320 

selling,    316-319 
Cost  of  production,  357-386 

in  different  regions,  384 
Costs,  other  than  labor,  360 
Cover-crops,    159-162 

advantages  and  disadvantages, 

161 

Crop  estimates,  337 
Cross  pollination,   249-257 
Culls,  disposition  of,  306 
Cultivation,  methods,  162-163 

orchard,    155-171 
Cultural  methods,  effect  on  con- 
sumption, 13 
Curculio,  213 
Cutworms,  215 
Cycles,  in  apple  industry  8, 

Danger  from  speculative  develop- 
ment, 18 

Delaware,    advantages    and    dis- 
advantages, 104 

early  apples,  82 

regional  description,  37 
Delicious,  406 
Diseases   of   the    apple,    216-225 

in  selection  of  site,  122-123 
Distillation  types  of  evaporators, 

354 
Distribution,    322-327 

effect   on    consumption,    12 
Districts,  apple,  28-84 
Diversified  farms,  133-140 
Double-headed    pruning,    264 
Downing,  A.  J.,  influence  of,  21 
Duchess,    426 
Dusting,  discussion  of,  235-238 

Early  apple  regions,  80-84 

Harvest,   439 

Ripe,  435 

Electrically  heated  driers,  352 
English    Codling,    440 

Russet,   409 
Esopus    Spitzenburg,    403 


Index 


461 


Establishing  the   apple   orchard, 

144-153 

Evaporators,   350 
Exports,  11 
Export  varieties,  454 

Facing  barrels,  332 
Fallawater,  439 
Fall  Pippin,  439 
Fameuse,  432 
Farm,  size  of,  125-126 

management  phases,  133-143 

orchards,  decline  of,  4 
Favorable   factors   in   apple  out- 
look,  9-14 

Fertile  varieties,  257 
Fertilizer,    amount    to   the    tree, 
198-204 

how  to   apply,   200-201 
Fertilizing,      present      practices, 
187-188 

the  orchard,  186 
Fillers,    use   of,.  153 
Fire-blight,  221 
Fixed  costs,  380 
Flavor,  389 
Flooding,  185 
Fly-speck,  217 

Forced  draft  evaporators,   352 
Foreign  market,  development  of, 

Foreign  production,  85-99 
French   Russet,  408 
Friend  type  nozzle,  232 
Frosts,  in  West,  177-178 
Fruit  buds,  271 

setting,   249-257 

tree   Leaf-roller,   215 
Fruiting    wood,    distribution    of, 

275 

Fungicides,  247-248 
Furrowing  for  irrigation,  185 
Future  outlook  for  apple  indus- 
try, 7 

production,  14 

Gano,  407 


Georgia,  important  regions,  45- 

46 

Gillett's  Seedling,  401 
Gilliflower,  425 
Gypsy  moth,  damage  of,  33 
Olomerella  rufomaculans,  218 
Golden  Delicious,  440 

Russet,   408 
Government  marketing  agencies, 

336-337 

Grades  and  standards,  329 
Grading  laws,  331-332 

machines,  30 

Grand  Valley,  plantings,  60-61 
Gravenstein,  429 
Green  aphis,  211-212 
Grimes  Golden,  404 
Gymnosporanqium    jurviperi    vir- 
giniance,  218 

Hail  damage,  to  be  avoided,  346 
Hampers,  where  used,  330 
Handling  the  crop,  291-312 
Hardiness  of  varieties,  452 
Harvesting  costs,  379 
Heaton,  J.  C.  B.,  influence  of,  51 
Heeling,  in,  146 
Heterocordylus   malinus,   214 
Hexagonal  planting  system,   147 
History  of  commercial  industry, 

20 

Hollow  tile,  construction  of,  311 
Home  orchard  varieties,  454 
Hood    River    Valley,    advantages 

and   disadvantages,    112-113 
region,  70-72 
Hubbardston,   416 
Hudson   Valley,   advantages  and 

disadvantages,    101-102 
regional  description,  32-33 
Hull,   John,   231 
Hunt  Russet,  408 
Hybridization,  389 

Idaho,  74-75 

advantages  and  disadvantages, 
110-111 


462 


Index 


Illinois,    advantages    and    disad- 
vantages,   107 
regional  description,  50-53 
Implements  used  in   cultivation, 

165 

Increased  demand,  10 
Inflation,  apple  land  values,  8 
Ingram,   424 

Insect  pests  of  the  apple,  206-216 
Insects,  in  selection  of  site,  122- 

123 

Insecticides,  238 
Inspection    at    point    of    origin, 

332-333 

Insulation,   306-312 
Intensive  farms,  133-140 
Inter-crops,    use   of,    153-154 
Internal  browning,  223 
Investment  costs,  363 
Iowa,  heavy  plantings,  56-59 
Irrigated    districts,    amount    of 

water,  181-182 
characteristics  of  173-177 
choosing  of,  177-181 
Irrigation,    172-185 
methods  of,  183-185 
number   of   applications,    182- 

183 
time  of,    182 

Jelly  manufacturing,   355 
Johnson's  Fine  Winter,  400 
Jonathan,  399 
Jumble  pack,  304 

Kansas,  heavy  plantings,  56-59 

Kentucky,  48 

Kiln  evaporators.   351 

King  David,  440 

Kraus,  work  of,   189-191 

Kraybill,  work  of,  189-191 

Labor  conditions,  128-129 

cost  of,   359-360 

efficiency  of,  373 

Seasonal  distribution,  367 
Lady,  426 


Leguminous  cover-crop,  160 
Lepidosaphes  ulmi,  211 
Leptothyrium  pomi,  217 
Lewis,  C.  I.,  quoted,  195-198 
Lewiston  district,  75 
Lime,  value  of,   192 

sulfur,  241 

dry,   245-246 

home-made  242-244 
Locality,  choosing  of,  100-131 
Loess  apple  belt.  56-57 
Longevity   of    orchards,    121-122 
Long  Island   Russet,  408 
Loppers,  278 

Low  prices,  danger  of,  134 
Lowry,   439 
Lump-sum  buyers,  315 
Lygidea  mendax,  214 


Magnum  Bonum,  434 

Maiden  Blush,  431 

Maine,  apple  industry  in,  33 

Malacosoma  americana.  214 

Mains  communis,  27 
sylvestris,    27 

Mammoth  Black  Twig,  411 

Market,  proximity  to,  118-119 

Massachusetts,  apple  industry  in, 
33 

Materials,  cost  of,  372 

Mclntosh,  430 

Mechanical  sizers.  307 

Mice,  meadow,  223 
pine,  224 

Michigan,     regional    description, 
49-50 

Michigan,     western,     advantages 
and   disadvantages,    106-107 

Middle  West,  early  development 
of  apple,  23 

Mill  shavings,  insulation.  312 

Milton-Freewater  district,  73 

Minnesota,  80 

Miscible  oils,  245 

Mississippi  Valley  region  of  Illi- 
nois, 52 


Index 


463 


Missouri,  54-59 

advantages  and  disadvantages, 
107-109 

River  region,  56-59 

advantages  and  disadvantages, 
108-109 

Pippin,  418 

Modified  leader  pruning,  266 
Monmouth,  421 

Montana,  regional  description,  64 
Morris  Red,  424 

Natural    draft    evaporators,    350 
Natural  form  pruning,  260 
Nebraska,  heavy  plantings,  56-59 
Neglected  orchards,  treatment  of, 

284-290 
New    England,    advantages    and 

disadvantages,  103 
Baldwin  belt,  regional  descrip- 
tion,   33-34 
early  apples,  81 
early  plantings,  20 
New  Hampshire,  apple  industry 

33 

New  Jersey,  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages,  104 
district,    regional    description, 

36 

early  apples,  81-82 
New  Mexico,  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages,   115 
distribution  of  plantings,  62- 

63 
New  York,   early   apples,   81 

early  development  of,  21 
New  Zealand,  95-99 
Nicotine  solution,  244 
Nitrate  of  soda,  time  to  apply, 

205 

value  of,   192-200 
North    Carolina,    important    re- 
gions, 43-45 
Northern  Spy,  401 
Northwestern    Greening,    419 
Nova  Scotia,   86-88 
Nozzles,  types  of,  232 


Nummularia  discreta,  219 
Nursery  stock,  145-146 

Ohio,  important  regions,  46—48 

southern   advantages   and   dis- 
advantages,  106 
Okanogan  Valley  of  B.  C..  93 

regional   description,   67-69 
Oldenburg,   426 
Ontario,   90-92 
Opalescent,  440 
Open  center  pruning,  262 
Orchard  carriers,   303 

cultivation,  155-171 
Oregon,  70-73 

advantages  and  disadvantages, 

112-113 

Organization,  farm,  133-140 
Ortley,  420 
Outlook,  favorable  factors,  9 

unfavorable  factors,  15 
Over-production,  8 

possibility  of,  14-16 
Oyster-shell  scale,  211 
Ozark  region,  54 

advantages  and  disadvantages, 
107-108 

Package,   standard,   330 
Packing,  296 

boxed  apples,  303 
Packing-house   arrangement,   305 

construction,  310-312 

for  barreled  apples,  298 
Pajaro   Valley,    76-77 

early  development  of  apple,  23 
Paris  Green,  240 
Payette  Valley,  74 
Pear-blight,   221 

Pecos  Valley,  plantings  in,  62-63 
Pelican,  440 
Pen nock,  440 
Pennsylvania,  important  regions, 

38-42 

Perry  Russet,  409 
Phosphorus,  value  of,  192-204 
Phyllosticta  solitaria,  217 


464 


Index 


Physical  handling,  329 
Picking,   291 

utensils,  294 
Piedmont,  in  Virginia,  40-41 

region,  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages,  105-106 
Planting,   distances,    149-151 

system  of,  147-150 
Planting- board,  use   of,    151 
Plant-lice,    211 
Plowing,   163 
Plum  curculio,  213 
Pole  pruners,  277-278 
Pollination,  249-257 
Pollinizers,  255 
Pomme  Grise,  408 
Pooling,   321 

Potash,  value  of,  192-204 
Pound  Sweet,  422 
Prices,  relation  to  production,  7 
Prices  western  apple  land,  9 
Productivity  of  varieties,  451 
Pruning,  258-278 

cost  of,  375-376 

time  of,  276 
Pumpkin    Sweet,    422 
Pyrus  baccata,  27 

loensis,  27 

Mains,  26 

Quebec,  apple  industry  in,  89 
Quincunx  planting  system,  148 

Rambo,  419 

Raw  versus  planted  land,  116 
Recommended  varieties,  391 
Red  Astrachan,  435 

Bug,  214 

Canada,  421 

Cheek,  431 

Cheek  Pippin,  421 

June,  437 

Limbertwig,  414 
Regional  development,  130 
Regions,  apple,  2S-84 
Renovation  of  old  orchards,  284- 
290 


Rhode  Island  Greening,  398 
Rogue  River  Valley,  72-73 

advantages  and  disadvantages, 

113 

Rome  Beauty,  401 
Rosette,   apple,   222 
Rosy  apple  aphis,  211 
Round-headed    Apple-tree    borer, 

214 

Roxbury  Russet,  408 
Russets,  408 

San  Jose"  scale,  life  history  and 
control,  210 

Saperda  Candida,  214 

Saws,  277 

Schizoneura  lanigera,  212 

Sebastopol  apple  district,  78 

Sections,  apple,  28-84 

Seed,  quantity  to  use,  162 

Seed   selection,    389 

Seeds,  indicating  maturity,  293 

Setting   of  fruit,   250-254 
trees,   151-152 

Shears,   277 

Shenandoah-Cumberland  district. 

38-40 

advantages  and  disadvantages, 
104-105 

Shipping  station,  distance  from, 
119-120 

Site,  choosing  of,  116-131 

Size  of  farm,  influence  of,  366 
of  orchard,  influence  of,  364 

Slatted  table,  297 

Smith's  Cider,  439 

Smokehouse,  439 

Snow,  432 

Social   conditions,   129 

Sod-mulch,   advantages   and   dis- 
advantages,  157-158 

Soil,   130-132 

Management,  chart  of,   164 
management,  cost  of,  376 

Sooty  blotch,  217 

Sorting  barreled  apples,  296 
boxed  apples,  303 


Index 


465 


Southeastern  Illinois  region,  53 
Southern  Illinois,  early  apple  re- 
gion,   51-52 

early   apples,    83 
Southern  Ohio,  46-47 
Specialized  farms,  133-140 
Spitzenburg,  403 
Spokane  district,  70 

advantages  and  disadvantages, 

112 

Spray -gun,  231 
Spraying,  226-248 

cost  of,  228 

notes,  regional,  233-235 
Spreaders,  in  spray,  246 
Square,  planting  system,  147 
Stable  manure,  value  of,  188-205 
Stack  evaporators,  351 
Stark,   415 
Starr,   436 

State,  H.  R.,  influence  of,  45 
Stayman,  405 
Sterile   varieties,    256 
Stewart,   J.   P.,   quoted,   191-194 
Storage,  333-335 
Strawberry,  438 
Summer  pruning,  276-277 
Supplies,  purchase  of,  322 
Sutton,  424 
Swaar,  439 
Sweet  Bough,  439 
Syndicate  farming,  danger  of,  18 

projects,    117-118 

Tasmania,  95-99 

production   of,    18 
Tenantry,  systems  of,  140-143 
Thinning,  278-283 

cost  of,  378 
Tillage,  162-163 
Time  to  buy,  117 

to  plant,  151 
Tmetocera  ocellana,  215 
Tolman  Sweet,  417 
Tompkins  King,  410 
Tools  used  in  cultivation,   164 
Toolsj  pruning,  277 


Total  apple  crop,  5 
Tractor,    advantages    and   disad- 
vantages,  165-171 
Transparent,   428 
Transportation,    effect    on    con- 
sumption, 12 
Tree-run  buyers,  315 
Trees,  heading  152-153 

number  to  the  acre,  149 

setting,    151-152 
Truck,  use  of,   171 
Trunk-blight,  222 
Twenty   Ounce,   429 
Twig-blight,  222 
Twin  Falls  district,  75 

Unfavorable   factors   in  outlook, 
15 

Unfavored  regions,   17 

Utah,  advantages  and  disadvan- 
tages,   109-110 
distribution  of  plantings,  63 

Vacuum  driers,  354 
Value  of  apple  crop,  3 
Varieties,  387-457 

cost  of  production,  371 

influence    on    cost    production, 
367-371 

in  selection  of  site,  118 
Venturia  pomi,  216 
Vermont,  apple  industry,  35 
Vermorel  spray  nozzles,  232 
Vinegar,  356 

Virginia,  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages,  104-106 

Beauty,  440 

history  of  early  planting,  22 
Virginia,  important  Regions,  38- 
42 


Wagener,  411 
Walla  Walla  district,  70 
Washington,  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages, 111-112 
regional  description,  64-70 


466 


Index 


Water  rent,   179 

right,    180 

sprouts,  treatment  of.  287-288 
Watsonville   district,   76-77 
Wealthy,   427 

Wenatchee     Valley,     advantages 
and   disadvantages,    111-112 

first  plantings,  25 

regional  description,  67-69 
Western   New  York,   advantages 
and   disadvantages,    100-101 

regional  description,  29-32 
Westfield,   439 
West  Virginia,  important  region, 

38,  39,  42 

White  Pearmain,  414 
Willamette  Valley,  73 
Williams,  433 

Early  Red,  433 

Favorite,  433 
Willow   Twig,  413 


Winesap,   398 

Winter  Banana,  418 

Wisconsin,  79-80 

Wolf  River,  423 

Woolman's  Long  Pippin,  420 

Woolly    apple    aphis,    212-213 

Wounds,  dressing,  278 

Yakima  Valley,   advantages  and 
disadvantages,  111 

first  plantings,  24 

regional  description,  65-67 
Yates,  415 
Yellow  Bellflower,  407 

Newtown,   402 

Transparent,  428 
Yields,  339-347 

in  selection  of  site,  118 

table  of,  343 
York  Imperial,  400 
Yucaipa    apple    section,    78-79 


FEINTED    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  AT  I_OS  ANGELES 
THE  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARY 

This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


MAY 

!»OVl7i95f 

DEC  18 1950 

ft 


SEP  17 

RECE.VED 

SEP  19  1983 


tt»C.  DEM.  URL 


OCT* 


iw 


XX    000724244    9 


